Age estimation in adults is a complicated task because of various external factors occur concurrently with increasing age. The geometric morphometric method (GMM) is an approach that focuses on shape analysis and is widely recognized for its high reliability and reproducibility. The aim of this study was to explore the variation of cervical vertebrae among different age groups of the Malaysian population by GMM. Lateral skull radiographs of 432 subjects comprising four adult age groups; young adult age group (20–30 years old), early middle age group (31–40 years old), late middle age group (41–50 years old) and, elder adult age group (51–60 years old) were selected. Fifty-three 2-dimensional (2D) landmarks were applied to the digitalized radiographs by TPSDig2 (Version 2.31) software. Geometric morphometric analysis was performed by MorphoJ software. Results showed that the first three principal components (PC) contributed to 47.71 % of the cervical vertebrae variation and were shown in both lollipop and wireframe graphs. Procrustes ANOVA indicated that the shape was significantly different among different age groups. Canonical variate analysis revealed significant differences of both mahalanobis and procrustes distances among age groups with substantial individual overlap within groups. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) showed a correct classification rate for 61.5 % of cases respective to age groups. In conclusion, this study found significant differences in the shape of cervical vertebrae among different age groups of the Malaysian population using the GMM.

Facial soft tissue thickness (FSTT) is a crucial element in forensic identification and facialnreconstruction. Exploring its variations according to different sexes provides valuable information that is needed for an accurate identification. This study aimed to investigate FSTT variations between males and females of adult Malaysian populations. A total of 413 head and neck computed tomography (CT) scans (208 males, 205 females) of patients aged 18–65 years were selected. Four mid-sagittal landmarks; nasion, mid-philtrum, subnasale, and upper lip were involved in the measurement, using 3D-Slicer software. The effect of sex on FSTT was analysed using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). MANOVA showed a statistically significant difference in FSTT between sexes (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.020, p < 0.001). All four landmarks demonstrated significant variations between males and females (all p < 0.001). Males have greater FSTT compared to females at all landmarks. In conclusion, there were significant FSTT variations between the sexes of adult Malaysian population. This population-specific data could be applied as forensic reference that tailored to Malaysian population.

Facial soft tissue thickness (FSTT) is a crucial element in forensic identification and facial reconstruction. Exploring its variations according to different sexes provides valuable information that is needed for an accurate identification. This study aimed to investigate FSTT variations between males and females of adult Malaysian populations. A total of 413 head and neck computed tomography (CT) scans (208 males, 205 females) of patients aged 18–65 years were selected. Four mid-sagittal landmarks; nasion, mid-philtrum, subnasale, and upper lip were involved in the measurement, using 3D-Slicer software. The effect of sex on FSTT was analysed using multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA). MANOVA showed a statistically significant difference in FSTT between sexes (Wilks’ Lambda = 0.020, p < 0.001). All four landmarks demonstrated significant variations between males and females (all p < 0.001). Males have greater FSTT compared to females at all landmarks. In conclusion, there were significant FSTT variations between the sexes of adult Malaysian population. This population-specific data could be applied as forensic reference that tailored to Malaysian population.

Facial Soft Tissue Thickness (FSTT) plays a crucial role in forensic anthropology, especially for reconstructing the features of a face. Over time, various studies focused on the influence of age, sex and ancestry on these tissue measurements. By reviewing the literature, we present some insights into the application of different approaches for evaluation of FSTT ranging from imaging modalities to the traditional measurement and highlight the main results obtained for several populations. The present barriers to adoption of uniform FSTT guidelines and increasing use of FSTT in forensic examination are also being explored. With the proper understanding of the FSTT, which varies in different populations, improvement of the facial reconstructive techniques can be achieved, and as a result, the reliability of forensic identification could be enhanced.

>Age estimation in children is crucial for forensic identification. The mandible coronoid process is the site of attachment of the temporal muscle and is one of the parts that has changed during development, making it a potential landmark for age estimation. This study aimed to determine the morphological differences between children in the coronoid process of the mandible. A total of 305 dental panoramic tomography (DPT) images were divided into two age groups: Group 1 (3–7 years) and Group 2 (8–12 years). Six landmarks of coronoid process of mandible were applied to the DPT using the TPSDig2 software. The coordinate was exported to MorphoJ for geometric morphometric analysis. The general procrustes analysis (GPA), Principal component analysis (PCA), Procrustes ANOVA, and Discriminant function analysis (DFA) was performed. The first five PCs represented 86% of total shape variation, with PC1 contributing the highest proportion (38%), followed by PC2 (20%) and PC3 (12.23%). Procrustes ANOVA demonstrated significant differences in centroid size and shape between groups (p < 0.05). DFA achieved 73% correct classification and 64% after cross validation. Wireframe visualization revealed a higher coronoid tip in Group 2 compared to Group 1, indicating mandibular growth with age. Coronoid process morphology demonstrates significant age-related changes and can serve as a useful supplementary marker for forensic age estimation in children. Geometric morphometric analysis provides a reliable and objective framework for quantifying mandibular growth.

Geometric morphometric and volumetric analysis are important methods to analyse bone shape, size, and structural variations among populations, sexes, and ages. Geometric morphometric methods use two- or three-dimensional landmark coordinates to study the shape and form of biological or geometric structures. Volumetric analysis aims to determine the density of the bone or structure in three dimensions. This article is a review of 12 studies that have been done regarding the morphometric and volumetric analysis of lumbar vertebrae, and how they can be applied to forensics and clinical application. Google Scholar and PubMed were used to search for articles from (2010-2024) using Lumbar Vertebrae, Geometric Morphometrics, Volumetric Analysis, Forensic Anthropology, and Spinal Surgery keywords. Medical research shows, the size of lumbar vertebrae males have bigger vertebrae than females. Age, ethnicity, and morphometric data are crucial in designing implants for forensic anthropology and spinal surgery. They play an important role in improving clinical outcomes through CT-based models and 3D printing. These studies highlight the importance of morphometric data for understanding spinal anatomy and enhancing preoperative planning. This paper applies population data to refine morphometric techniques used in both fields.

Forensic odontology is the field of dentistry that identifies human remains. The mandible is the strongest bone in the face and remains intact even in mass disasters. Geometric morphometrics is a shape analysis that uses landmark coordinates that can visualise the variation of the structure. A total of 305 DPT images of 159 male and 146 female Malay children were classified into two age groups: Group 1 (ages 3–7) and Group 2 (ages 8–12). These images were analysed using geometric morphometric analysis. Twenty landmarks were digitised using the tpsDig2 software. MorphoJ was used to perform discriminant function analysis (DFA), canonical variate analysis (CVA), principal component analysis (PCA), generalised Procrustes analysis (GPA), and Procrustes ANOVA. There were significant differences in mandible shape and size between the two age groups and sexes (p < 0.05). The first five principal components (PC1–PC5) explained 75% of the shape variation. The DFA showed 82% accuracy in classifying children into age groups after cross-validation. However, the accuracy among males and females dropped to 62%, due to overlapping characteristics and the absence of secondary sexual traits in children under 12. Geometric morphometry can capture unique morphological shape variables, thus enabling the assessment of sexual dimorphism and age estimation using mandibles to aid forensic odontology. This research supports SDG 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions, by enhancing scientific tools for victim identification and justice in the aftermath of disasters and crimes involving children.

Sexual identification is the most crucial step in the forensic anthropology field. Traditional morphometric techniques, involving caliper-based measurements, are often labor-intensive and time-consuming. In contrast, the geometric morphometric method (GMM) offers a more efficient approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative assessments of biological forms based on precise geometric characterizations of their shape. This study aimed to assess sexual dimorphism of the Atlas (C1) bone on lateral cervical radiographs using GMM. A cross-sectional design was employed, utilizinglateral cervical radiographs from a sample of 413 individuals, including 208 males and 205 females, age ranged between 35 and 45 years old. Six 2D landmarks were identified and marked on the digitalized radiographs using TPSDig2 (Version 2.31) software. GMM analysis conducted by MorphoJ software. Eight principal components (PC) accounted for 100 % of the shape variability produced. Procrustes ANOVA showed that centroid size and shape were significantly different between different sexes. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) revealed a correct classification rate for 87.9 % of cases, with an identification accuracy of 87.0 % for males and 88.8 % for females. There were significant differences among males and females in the height of the C1 vertebral body with p < 0.05 via independent t-test. In conclusion, there was a significant sexual dimorphism of the C1 vertebra by GMM, which could serve as an alternative method in physical anthropology and forensic medicine.