In second/foreign language learning, it is hypothesised oral interaction facilitates language acquisition. Studies show that one aspect of interaction that promotes second/foreign language acquisition is through the process of negotiation, and one factor that influences interaction is the task or activity that learners are engaged in. Hence, it is the aim of this study to investigate if foreign language (FL) learners would engage in different negotiation strategies when completing different communication task types. Nine FL learners from a tertiary EFL class in groups of three participated in the study. They completed three different communication task types (i.e., information gap, jigsaw and decision-making) over a period of four weeks. Data for the study comprised transcribed recordings of the groups' oral interaction. This study qualitatively examined FL learners' oral interactions when engaged in three different types communication tasks. Data collected were analysed for instances of negotiation. Findings revealed that the different communication tasks elicited negotiation episodes as the participants engaged in task completion. They applied similar negotiation strategies during peer interaction. However, further scrutiny revealed that there were differences in terms of the depth of negotiation for the different communication task types. The results of this study exhibit evidence that language communication tasks do promote meaningful interactions among tertiary EFL learners. Data clearly showed widespread negotiation episodes during task completion. The knowledge on the types of communication tasks that can promote meaningful interaction and negotiation episodes can assist language practitioners to make informed decisions on tasks that are suitable for their learners.

Over the past decades, much of the discussion regarding grammar teaching has evolved around the identification of the best language teaching approach to facilitate effective learning of English language among second language (L2) learners. Despite the various approaches introduced and implemented in the realm of L2 teaching, the language performances of these learners are still 'off-target' as they are still found not able to use the correct language expressions to serve their communicative needs. Investigation of the use of concepts in the learning and teaching of grammar may provide an alternative solution in enhancing learners' L2 grammar competence. Known as Concept Based Instruction (CBI) this pedagogical approach that is predicated on Vygotskian thought, centres on promoting the quality of the grammar rules in helping learners to understand and use the grammar concepts to achieve their communicative needs. This article focuses on the principles found in CBI with the aim of exploring CBI's potential and hence facilitate in-depth understanding of not only the structural forms but also the semantic meaning of the target language among L2 learners.

Bronfenbrenner's (1977; 1986; 1994) Ecology of Human Development Theory has placed a few groups of people in the microsystem level (the innermost circle) to have influence on the development of a person. This paper puts forth a proposition of altering the groups of people in conjunction with globalisation. This is so due to the movement of people to other countries in the pursuance of knowledge. Through a qualitative paradigm, the data from a study on the international students' English language learning experiences show that for these students, the groups of people who have been helpful in their quest to learn the English language are their friends, teachers/lecturers, other international students and even anyone who is able to converse in the English language. The interviews and online postings of 9 international students studying in Malaysia reveal that the family members, who have been rated as playing the biggest role in the development of a person in Bronfenbrenner's theory, are considered as 'unhelpful' in the students' journey to learn the English language. Thus, globalisation is a phenomenon that can bring in various elements that might cause alteration - expansion to even a long withstanding theory. This brings only richness to the education world.

Enhancing 21st century learning skills becomes the utmost importance in the contemporary education world. In Malaysia, the rising number of unemployment among Malaysian university graduates is associated to the lack of 21st century skills and it is imperative to find a pedagogical approach that could enhance these skills. This study examines how Multiliteracies Project Approach (MPA) enhances 21st century skills among Malaysian university graduates. It is a qualitative study that was conducted at a public university in Nilai, Malaysia, involving 50 students enrolled in English as a Second Language (ESL) course. Data was collected using qualitative tools such as observation, semi-structured interviews and reflective journals. Data was then analyzed using a thematic analysis method. The findings of the study showed that MPA promotes the development of collaborative, technological and critical thinking skills among students. MPA provided students the chance to practice working effectively in in a network of people to achieve a mutual goal. Findings also showed that students acquired new skills when learning using MPA, including technological skills and critical thinking skills which were significant in 21st century employment. The findings suggest that Multiliteracies Project Approach can provide a significant pedagogical implication.

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) Language Case Crafting (PBL-LcCRAFT) Model is a new PBL case design guide for language practitioners to craft PBL cases specifically for English Language teaching and learning. This paper describes five significant components in this new model that complement the 21st century learning skills. Data illustrated in this paper were drawn from an action research project on PBL case design training and model for English language practitioners. The four steps in the action research approach namely plan, act, observe and reflect were closely followed within two cycles of the research procedure. Data collection tools were observation checklist and focus group interviews with a group of English Language practitioners. The collected data were then analysed using content analysis for emerging themes and the findings were used to develop the new model (PBL-LcCRAFT). The outcome of this study is the new model which is a guide for crafting PBL cases specifically for languages. This paper discusses five interrelated components in the new model (Ill-structuredness, Language in-use, Researching, Reasoning and Reflecting) which language practitioners considered as significant components in crafting language cases. The key findings presented here are the five interrelated components in PBL-LcCRAFT that have assisted the practitioners to craft cases and the symbiosis between these five components with the 21st century skills (i.e. knowledge, creativity, collaboration, critical thinking and communication skills).

Problem-Based Learning (PBL) aligns with approaches required in second language learning and teaching in which students learn the target language by practicing it and thus, making it an acceptable pedagogical choice to cater for the need of the language learners. Case/Problem is the core element in PBL. The important characteristics of PBL include students learning with an ill-structured problem in which the problem acts as the starting point to structure the learning agenda. However, due to lack of knowledge and experience in crafting cases and the scarcity of case design models for language, practitioners often find it challenging to employ PBL approach in their classrooms. This research aims to study the feasibility of using the 3C3R Case-Design Model (Hung, 2006) to craft PBL cases for a General English Course. In this Action Research approach, four steps (planning, action, observation and reflect) were closely followed within two cycles of the action research procedure. Data collection tools were observation checklist and focus group interviews with a group of English language practitioners which was then analyzed using content analysis for emerging themes. The findings revealed some significant themes pertaining to the need for adaptation and inclusion of other components in the model to craft PBL cases for language courses. One of the significant theme was on `ill-structuredness' as a component to be included in the 3C3R model. The findings also suggest the importance of the emerging PBL Language Case-design Model for language teaching which is expected to be a reference to language practitioners with limited case-design knowledge to craft PBL cases for their specific classroom goals.

Background: Case/Problem is the core element for Problem-Based Learning (PBL). However, due to lack of knowledge and experience in crafting cases, practitioners often find it challenging to employ PBL approach in their classrooms. The purpose of this study was to train English language practitioners to craft their own PBL cases for a General English Course using 3C3R Case-Design Model (Hung, 2006) as the basis. The 3C3R model consists of two classes of components: core and processing components. Methods: This study employed the Action Research approach in which the four steps (planning, action, observation and reflect) were closely followed within two cycles of the action research procedure. Data were collected through observation checklist and focus group interviews with 8 participants who are English language practitioners. Results: The findings were two-fold: an emerging PBL case-design model for language courses (PBL Language Case-design Model) and the practitioners' experiences on the trainings. Some of the findings that led to the emerging PBL Language Case-design Model: a) issues on the content component in the 3C3R case design model (Hung, 2006); content was not the main aim when teaching language, b) the inclusion of affective angle in the model. Conclusion: In conclusion, the importance of the emerging PBL Language Case-design Model for language teaching and the valuable gains of the trainings in preparing PBL case crafters for language courses were the significant findings. The emerging model is not only expected to guide English Language practitioners with limited case-design knowledge but also practitioners teaching other languages, to craft PBL cases to meet their learners' language learning aims.

Creating tasks may sound simple, however, it is one of the challenging jobs for language teachers. In teaching language, teachers need to consider many things such as learners' social background, learner's language proficiency, learners' ability, learners' attitude and many more. Thus, creating tasks can be a challenge for them. Cummins (1981) suggests 2 main elements in designing materials - contextual relevance and cognitive difficulty - which are formed into a matrix to show four levels to consider in tasks design. Based on Cummins' matrix, tasks can be easy for some, and difficult for some. One task may not suit all learners, and thus make task design a challenge for language teachers. This study looks at the use of tasks, developed based on Cummins' matrix, for low proficiency English language learners. Five types of tasks are used, and learners' views are gathered to understand what they think of the tasks. The aim of the study is to explore learners' perceptions towards tasks prepared for an English language class, and aligning them with the teacher's understanding of the tasks. Fourteen learners were involved in the study. Using qualitative approach, data is gathered through interviews, which are then transcribed verbatim, and analysed using thematic analysis. Results show that learners have different views of tasks, which may be due to many factors within learners' experience and knowledge. This shows that although learners are of the same proficiency level, the difficulty of tasks may not be equal for all learners as it is affected by the contextual relevance of the tasks to learners, as well as the cognitive level of learners in their ability to perform the tasks. Therefore, understanding learners is important for teachers in planning suitable tasks for their learners. By doing this, learners will have more enjoyment in language learning, and able to associate tasks more to their life.

e-PRASMO is an online teaching supervision tool used for a teaching practicum subject (EAZ4214). It has been used for 3 different cohorts of teacher-students who have done their teaching practicum for eight weeks respectively. After undergoing two cycles of its usage, e-PRASMO was then enhanced to be in line with the current state of education which emphasises on the 21st century learning skills and the shifts in the national blueprints. In order to situate e-PRASMO in the theoretical body of knowledge, The 3P's Model for teaching and learning by Biggs espouses its embellishment. The 3Ps are Presage, Process and Product phases. Presage covers the characteristics of the learners; the Process is the online teaching practicum (e-PRASMO) that the students undergo while the Product refers to the learning experienced by the students. The learners are digital immigrants but they need to be relevant teachers for their digital native students from generation Z or even generation Alpha. The third cohort (30 students) utilised the technologically-enhanced e-PRASMO in the Process phase where all the notes and submission of work are done digitally. Then, in the Product phase, the learners found they have improved in terms of technological knowledge and skill. This study delves into the technological enhancement perceived by the 30 students. They answered the google form which contains items using likert scale and open-ended questions relating to 3 aspects (usability, flexibility and acceptance) of using e-PRASMO. The data were then tabulated, analysed and presented in percentage: the highest elements for usability, flexibility, and acceptance are the links (90.3%), access to information (100%), and increase in knowledge and skills (93.5%) respectively. On the whole, they reported very positively in their advancement of the technology introduced via e-PRASMO.

According to Vygotsky, language serves not only as a tool for communication but also as a psychological tool in developing an individual's cognitive process. From this perspective, the use of language (i.e. L1) provides learners with additional cognitive support in solving second language (L2) linguistic tasks in an attempt to achieve the desired L2 learning goal. Grounded within the Vygotskian Sociocultural theory of mind (SCT), this paper reports on an investigation of the use of L1 (i.e. Malay language) as a semiotic mechanism in mediating learners' understanding of the English tense-aspect system. The study involved 8 L1 Malay university-level learners of L2 English as they attempted to verbalize their understanding of target tense-aspect concept. Data was drawn from the verbalization protocols obtained by transcribing individual (self-explaining) and dyadic (collaborative interaction) activity during a CBI session. Our findings revealed that L1, manifested through learners' metalanguage, act as a mediational tool to structure and organise thought in helping learners gain a deeper understanding of the target grammatical concept. Analysis of the findings not only supports the Vygotskian view regarding the role of L1 as a regulatory tool in L2 learning but also provide further evidence of the positive role and value of L1 in enabling learners to explore and gain insights of the relationship between form and meaning of the L2. (C) 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. Open access under CC BY-NC-ND license.

Purpose - This study investigated the use of metalanguage as a mediational tool in understanding targeted grammatical concepts from the perspective of the Sociocultural approach(SCT) in learning a second language(L2). Methodology - The participants involved in this study were Malay undergraduates with low to intermediate proficiency in L2 English. The protocols of learners' verbalisation during a Concept-Based Instruction(CBI) language task were analysed to explore how learners used metalanguage to mediate, facilitate and regulate their L2 learning. A microgenetic analysis was conducted to examine how metalanguage was used as a mediating tool by the learners in the actual L2 learning process. It involved an investigation of the language learning instances that occurred in their natural context. Analysis of the protocols was performed using 'Languaging Units' that were based on the 'Languaging Types Framework' proposed by Swain et al.(2009). Additionally, descriptive statistics were employed to measure the frequency of the languaging units produced by learners in facilitating their L2 development. Findings - Results revealed that through the Languaging Units identified, learners used the linguistic tool as a problem-solving tool to explore form-meaning relationships of the target concepts learnt. Findings corroborated the significant role of language, viewed from Vygotskian thought, in relation to mediating learners' cognitive processes. The function of language in this context was twofold, first as a communicative tool, and second as a psychological tool to support learners' cognitive and linguistic development in their L2 learning. Significance - This study is significant to L2 researchers and practitioners as it provides insights into how learners make use of their L2 knowledge to optimally support their cognitive processes in gaining understanding of the target language. This, in fact, has long been a neglected issue in the field of L2 learning, as discussion on metalanguage or a learner's metalinguistic knowledge is more often associated with presenting a learner with the explicit input of grammar rules in promoting his/her L2 proficiency.