MEMBRANE WATER TREATMENT: A JURISTIC EVALUATIVE STUDY WAN AINAA MARDHIAH BINTI WAN ZAHARI UNIVERSITI SAINS ISLAM MALAYSIA i MEMBRANE WATER TREATMENT: A JURISTIC EVALUATIVE STUDY Wan Ainaa Mardhiah Binti Wan Zahari Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN SYARIAH & JUDICIARY UNIVERSITI SAINS ISLAM MALAYSIA December 2022 ii AUTHOR DECLARATION I hereby declare that the work in this thesis is my own except for quotations and summaries which have been duly acknowledged Date : 30 December 2022 Signature: Name : Wan Ainaa Mardhiah Binti Wan Zahari Matric No : 4160068 Address : No 31, Jalan Wira 5, Taman Wira, 86400, Parit Raja, Batu Pahat, Johor iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Alhamdulillah, all praise to Allah S.W.T who is the most Gracious, most Compassionate for giving me the strength, wisdom and perseverance to endure all problems encountered during my PhD’s journey. This thesis may have never seen the light without the help of many generous people. My sincerest appreciation must go to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. Irwan Bin Mohd Subri, who bravely took the risk of supervising me as his PhD student and give the guidance from the first day of being under his supervision until the end of my PhD journey. Many thanks for his brilliance, guidance, advice, patience and constant care; which I am grateful to have received from his and it will be a priceless experience that I will never forget. Special thanks to my respected co-supervisors, Prof. Dr. Azman Bin Ab. Rahman and Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohd Hafez Bin Mohd Isa for their guidance, help and constructive comments for conducting my study. It was a great and valuable experience having you that are knowledgeable and have a lot of experience in the research field. Finally yet importantly, I would like to convey my deepest thanks to my beloved and supportive husband, Dr. Mohamad Adib bin Mohamad Salih and all my little mujahid sons; Muhammad Nukman, Muhammad Naufal, Muhammad Nafees and Muhammad Nasaie for your spirit to encourage me to finish this struggle. Important persons in my life with always care about my struggle, my parents Prof Sr. Dr. Wan Zahari bin Wan Yusoff and Fadilah binti Yaakub, mother in law Asiah binti Elias and also my supportive siblings; Wan Anisa Mardhiah, Wan Shahida Mardiah, Wan Hanani Mardhiah, Wan Shahira Mardhiah, Wan Fatini Mardhiah, Wan Afza Mardhiah and my little mujahid brother Wan Muhammad Yusuf for their love, support and never-ending prayers. I really hope that this thesis is not just being evaluated as a thesis only but actually as something valuable that can give benefit in the future. Last but not least, to those who have made contributions directly or indirectly and cannot all be named, thank you very much. May Allah S.W.T bless your life. Sincerely, Wan Ainaa Mardhiah Binti Wan Zahari 2022 iv ABSTRAK Penjimatan air adalah perkara yang sangat penting dalam Islam. Penggunaan semula air buangan melalui proses rawatan air dengan memfokuskan kepada teknologi rawatan air membran adalah salah satu cara penjimatan air. Walaubagaimanapun, perbincangan dan perdebatan dalam kalangan pakar dan masyarakat terus berlaku kerana sumber air rawatan ini diperoleh daripada air mustacmal iaitu air yang suci tetapi tidak menyucikan dan juga air mutanajjis iaitu air yang tidak suci dan tidak menyucikan. Selain itu, bahan pembuatan penapis air membran turut menjadi pertikaian dari segi halal atau sebaliknya. Oleh itu, kajian ini bertujuan untuk mengenalpasti konsep rawatan dan penyucian air menurut perspektif Fiqh dan sains. Seterusnya, kajian ini juga mengkaji kaedah rawatan dan penyucian air membran dan menilai rawatan air membran dari perspektif Fiqh. Kajian ini menggunakan kaedah kualitatif dengan cara analisis dokumen dan temubual terhadap enam orang pakar dalam bidang Fiqh dan teknologi air. Kajian ini mendapati bahawa terdapat kaedah khas dalam rawatan air mustacmal dan mutanajjis. Jika kedua- duanya digabungkan, ianya akan menghasilkan kaedah rawatan air yang selari dengan syariah. v ABSTRACT Water saving is significant in Islam. Reusing wastewater through the water treatment process focused on membrane water treatment technology is one of the ways to save water. However, discussions and debates among scholars and the community continue to occur because the source of this water treatment is obtained from mustacmal water (pure water but not purifying) and mutanajjis water (impure water that does not purify). In addition, the material for manufacturing membrane water filters is also a dispute in terms of halal or otherwise. Therefore, this study aims to identify the concept of water treatment and purification according to the perspective of Fiqh and science. Next, this study also studies the methods of membrane water treatment and purification and then evaluates the process of membrane water treatment from Fiqh perspective. This study uses qualitative research methods through document analysis and interviews with six experts in the field of Fiqh and water technology. This study found that there are special methods in the treatment of mustacmal and mutanajjis water. Combined, it will result in a water treatment method that aligns with shariah. iv الملخص المياه العادمة أو مياه الصرف الصحي إعادة استعمال توفير المياه هو أمر مهم جدا في الإسلام. وتعتب إن لانهائيا حول هذه من خلال عملية معالجة مياه هي إحدى طرق توفير المياه. ولكن تستمر المناقشة والمناظرة والمجتمع لأن مصدر مياه المعالجة من الماء المستعمل وهو ماء طاهر الاختصاصيين العلماء القضية لدي الماء المتنجس وهو ماء غير طاهر وليس مطّهرا. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك، هناك جدال ّهرا ومنبنفسه وليس مط المياه الغشائية من حيث حلالها أو غير ذلك. فتهدف هذه الدراسة إلى أو منّقيات عن مادة تصنيع فلاتر لدراسة عن طرق وتنقيتها من منظور الفقه والعلوم. وبعد ذلك، تبحث هذه ا معرفة مفهوم معالجة المياه تنقيتها من منظور الفقه وتقترح نموذجا لمعالجة المياه الغشائية المتوافقة بالشريعة ليتم الغشائية و معالجة المياه استخدامه عند الماليزيين. فتستخدم هذه الدراسة الأساليب النوعية عن طريق تحليل الوثائق والمقابلات مع وجدت هذه الدراسة أن هناك طرق خاصة في معالجة الماء المياه. وبهاستة خباء في مجال الفقه وتكنولوجيا .المستعمل والماء المتنجس. وإذا تم الجمع بين الاثنين، فسيؤدي إلى طريقة معالجة المياه التي تتوافق مع الشريعة vii TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT PAGE AUTHOR DECLARATION………………………………………………………… ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………..iii ABSTRAK……………………………………………………………………………..iv ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………….v AL-MULAKHKHAS…………….…………………………………………………..….vi TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………….. vii LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………….. x LIST OF FIGURES…………………………………………………………………… xi LIST OF SYMBOLS………………………………………………………………. xiii LIST OF APPENDICES…………………………………………………………….. xiv LIST OF TRANSLITERATION ……………………………………………………..xv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…………………………………………………..…... xvii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………... 1 1.1 Research Background…………………………………………………………1 1.2 Problem Statement…………………………………………………………… 6 1.3 Research Questions…………………………………………………………. 11 1.4 Research Objectives………………………………………………………… 11 1.5 Research Significance………………………………………………………. 12 1.6 Research Scope ……………………………………………………………...12 1.7 Operational Definition……………………………………………………… 13 1.7.1 Shariah Compliance…………………………………………………. 13 1.7.2 Water Treatment…………………………………………………….. 13 1.7.3 Water Purification…………………………………………………… 14 1.7.4 Fiqh Perspective……………………………………………………...14 1.7.5 Halal…………………………………………………………………. 14 1.8 Research Structure………………………………………………………….. 15 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………….…………. 17 2.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 17 2.2 Halal Industries in Malaysia…………………………………………………18 2.3 The Concept of Water………………………………………………………. 26 2.4 Water Treatment & Purification Process History…………………………... 31 2.4.1 Prehistoric Time (ca. 3200 – 1000 BC)……………………………... 34 2.4.2 Historical Time (ca. 1000 BC – 330 AD)…………………………… 34 2.4.3 Early and Mid-modern Times (ca. 1400 – 1900 AD)……………….. 36 2.4.4 Contemporary Times (1900 AD – present) ………………………….36 2.5 Previous Study on Water Treatment & Purification………………………... 37 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.…………………………………. 49 3.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 49 3.2 Research Method…………………………………………………………….49 3.3 Research Approach…………………………………………………………. 50 3.3.1 Document Analysis………………………………………………….. 51 3.3.2 Interview (Experts in Fiqh and Water Technology)………………… 51 3.4 Method of Data Analysis…………………………………………………… 53 viii 3.5 Data Collection………………………………………………………………54 3.5.1 Pre-Data Collection…………………………………………………. 54 3.5.2 Data Collection……………………………………………………… 55 3.5.3 Post-Data Collection………………………………………………… 57 3.6 Validity and Reliability of the Research……………………………………..58 3.6.1 Research’s Validity………………………………………………….. 58 3.6.2 Research’s Validity………………………………………………….. 60 3.7 Analysis Data Procedure……………………………………………………. 63 3.8 Summary of Research Methodology………………………………………...65 3.9 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………... 66 3.10 Conceptual Framework……………………………………………………... 67 3.11 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….. 68 CHAPTER 4: WATER TREATMENT AND PURIFICATION IN FIQH AND SCIENTIFIC PERSPECTIVES……………………………………………………. 69 4.1 Introduction…………………………………………………………………. 69 4.2 Water Treatment and Purification in Fiqh Perspective……………………... 69 4.2.1 Purification (taharah) in Islam………………………………………. 69 4.2.2 Maqasid Syariah and Islamic Legal Maxim………………………… 70 4.2.3 Water Use and Water Usage……………………………………….. ..73 4.2.4 Classification/ Types of Water in Islam…………………………….. 75 4.2.5 Discussion of Two Qullah among Fuqaha’……………………….... 85 4.2.6 Najasah (Impurities) Concepts from Fuqaha’ Views………………. 86 4.2.7 Al-Mutahhirat (The Purifier)………………………………………... 94 4.2.8 Water Treatment and Purification in Fiqh…………………………... 96 4.2.9 Theories and Hukm on Water Purification………………………….. 99 4.3 Water Treatment and Purification from Science Perspective……………... 101 4.3.1 Classification and Types of Water………………………………… 101 4.3.2 Water Treatment Technology……………………………………… 103 CHAPTER 5: MEMBRANE WATER TREATMENT IN FIQH PERSPECTIVE……………………………………………………………………. 114 5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………... 114 5.1 Membrane Technology……………………………………………………. 114 5.2 Membrane Fabrication Techniques……………………………………….. 116 5.2.1 Flat Sheet Membrane………………………………………………. 116 5.2.2 Hollow Fibre Membrane……………………………………………117 5.3 Types of Membranes………………………………………………………. 117 5.4 Membrane Characteristics………………………………………………….120 5.5 Membrane Modules……………………………………………………….. 121 5.6 Membrane Operation……………………………………………………… 122 5.7 Membrane Materials………………………………………………………. 123 5.8 Membrane Water Treatment for Domestic Purposes……………………… 128 5.9 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….129 CHAPTER 6: DATA ANALYSIS AND FINDINGS…………………………... 130 6.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………... 130 6.2 Issues Arise………………………………………………………………... 130 6.3 Informant Demography/ Context………………………………………….. 131 6.4 Definition of Water Treatment and Purification…………………………... 132 ix 6.5 Water Treatment and Purification Methods………………………………. 133 6.6 Membrane Water Treatment………………………………………...……..135 6.7 Main Components and Functions of Membrane Technology……………... 136 6.8 Materials of Membrane Water Treatment………………………………… .139 6.9 Process and Operation of Membrane Water Treatment…………………… 144 6.10 Consumers' Acceptance towards Water Treatment Usage…………………147 6.11 The Products that Use Membrane Technology……………………………. 151 6.12 Hukm of Membrane Water Treatment…………………………………….. 151 6.12.1 Water Produced by Water Filter…………………………………… 151 6.12.2 Membrane Filter Materials………………………………………… 161 6.13 The Needs of Water Treatment and Purification Methods………………... 163 6.14 The Combination of Water Treatment and Purification Methods ………... 164 6.15 The Related Methods/ Theories in Membrane Water Treatment…………. 166 6.15.1 Istihalah Theory…………………………………………………… 166 6.15.2 Istihlak Theory…………………………………………………….. 167 6.16 Membrane Water Treatment in Fiqh View……………………………….. 172 6.17 Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 178 CHAPTER 7: DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION………………..…………… 180 7.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………... 180 7.2 Research Summary…………………………………………………………180 7.2.1 The Hukm of Water Sourced for Membrane Water Treatment……. 180 7.2.2 The Hukm of Materials Used for Membrane Filter………………... 181 7.3 Research Suggestion and Recommendation………………………………. 183 7.4 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….183 REFERENCES………………………………………………………………..…… 185 APPENDIX 1………………………………………………………………………. 198 APPENDIX 2………………………………………………………………………. 199 APPENDIX 3………………………………………………………………………. 200 APPENDIX 4………………………………………………………………………. 201 APPENDIX 5………………………………………………………………………. 202 APPENDIX 6………………………………………………………………………. 203 APPENDIX 7………………………………………………………………………. 204 APPENDIX 8………………………………………………………………………. 207 x LIST OF TABLES Tables Page Table 2.1: Halal Standards in Malaysia 23 Table 2.2: The Use of Water in the Perspective of the Quran 29 Table 2.3: The Theme for Word Water Day Table 2.4: The Purification of Mutanajjis Water 30 32 Table 3.1: Interview Informants List 52 Table 3.2: The Interview Item Validation Process Information 54 Table 3.3: The Interview Process Information 56 Table 3.4: Summary of Research Methodology 65 Table 4.1: The Priority of Use Water in Al-Quran Table 4.2: Water Characteristic of its Classifications Table 4.3: Mutlaq Water Classification Table 4.4: Mustacmal Water Classification Table 4.5 Mutanajjis Water Classification Table 4.6: The Classification of Najasah and the Cleansing Method Table 4.7: Discussion on Treatment Method of Water Table 4.8: Types of Water Sources Potential for Reclamation and Reuse Table 4.9: The Amount of Calcium for Each Sources Table 5.1: Types of Membrane and Its Pore Sizes Table 5.2: Polymeric Materials Used for Membrane and The Membrane Processes Table 5.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Inorganic Membranes Compared to Polymeric Membranes Table 5.4: Summarization of Membrane Types with Suitable Material Used Table 6.1: Interview Informants List Table 6.2: Categories and Hukm of Istihlak Process Table 6.3: Types of Membrane Materials 73 83 83 84 84 86 99 101 112 119 124 127 128 131 171 174 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figures Page Figure 1.1: Domestic Water Consumption in Malaysia 2012-2019 Figure 2.1: The Occasion of World Water Day on 22 March Every Year 7 30 Figure 2.2: The Facilities of Wastewater Management in Ancient Times 35 Figure 2.3: Sewers and Drains Used to Collect and Convey Wastewater to Central Sewer 36 Figure 2.4: Publication Numbers Associated with The Membrane Literature Among The Researcher Between 2008 and 2019 43 Figure 2.5: Comparison Between Conventional and Membrane Water Treatment Systems 44 Figure 3.1: Process of Triangulation Data Collection and Analysis 60 Figure 3.2: The Interview Question Validation Process by the Validator 1 61 Figure 3.3: The Interview Question Validation Process by the Validator 2 62 Figure 3.4: Suggestion of Research Theoretical Framework Figure 3.5: Suggestion of Research Conceptual Framework 66 67 Figure 4.1: Steps in Conventional for Sewage Water Treatment Figure 4.2: Granular Activated Carbon Figure 4.3: Powdered Activated Carbon Figure 4.4: The Process of Water Treatment Using Activated Carbon Filter Figure 4.5: Membrane Filter Operation for Water Treatment 106 108 109 110 110 Figure 5.1: Range of Nominal Membrane Pore Sizes 119 Figure 5.2: Membrane Technology Application 121 Figure 5.3: Membranes Modules 122 Figure 5.4: Operation of Membrane Water Treatment 123 Figure 5.5: The Ceramic Membrane Filter 126 Figure 6.1: Istihlak Process 170 xii Figure 6.2: The Changing Process of Mustacmal/ Mutanajjis Water 171 Figure 6.3: Concept of the Membrane Water Treatment 172 Figure 6.4: Shariah Compliance Membrane Water Treatment 176 Figure 6.5: Shariah Point of Membrane Water Treatment Process 178 Figure 7.1: The Theories Involves in the Membrane Water Treatment Process 182 xiii LIST OF SYMBOLS BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CAS Conventional Activated Sludge CMS Carbon membranes COD Chemical Oxygen Demand ED Electrodialysis MF Microfiltration NF Nanofiltration NMT Nano Membrane Toilet RO Reverse Osmosis TOC Total Organic Compound TSS Total Suspended Solid UF Ultrafiltration UV Ultra Violet xiv LIST OF APPENDICES Appendices Page Appendix 1: Interview Question for Validation (Shariah) 198 Appendix 2: Interview Question for Validation (Science) 199 Appendix 3: Interview Questions Set of Syariah Experts 200 Appendix 4: Interview Questions Set of Science Experts 201 Appendix 5: Invitation Letter for Validation of Interview Question (Shariah) 202 Appendix 6: Invitation Letter for Validation of Interview Question (Science) 203 Appendix 7: Invitation Letter for Interview’s Informants (Water Technologist) 204 Appendix 8: Invitation Letter for Interview’s Informants (Shariah) 207 xv LIST OF TRANSLITERATION I. Alphabet Transliteration Example Latin letters Arabic letters al-ma’a ءالما ’ ء burd درب b ب tathir يرثت t ت thawb بوث th ث jidār رادج j ج halal للاح ḥ ح khādim مداخ kh خ dῑk قيد d د dhahab بهذ dh ذ rafīq قفار r ر zamīl لماز z ز sac ءاس s س shaʿb بعش sh ش sakhr رخص ṣ ص dayq قيض ḍ ض taharah ةراهط ṭ ط zahir رهاظ ẓ ظ ‘aql لقع c ع ghulām ملاغ gh غ fuqaha ءاهقف f ف qullah ةللق q ق kitab باتك k ك lubb ّبل l ل mustacmal لمعتسم m م najasah ةسانج n ن hawl لوه w و waraq عراو h ه yam ّي y ي xvi II. Short Vowels Arabic letters Latin letters Example Transliteration ____ َ_ a تنق Qanata _____ ِ i برش Shariba ___ ُ u عجم Jumi‘a III. Long Vowels Arabic letters Latin letters Example Transliteration أ/ى ā أيحا Iḥyā’ ي iˉ ديدتج Tajdiˉd و ū مولع ‘Ulūm IV. Diphthongs Arabic letters Latin letters Example Transliteration و aw لوق Qawl ي ay يرغ Ghayr ي iyy/ iˉ برع ‘Arabiyy or ‘arabiˉ (at the end of the sentence) و Uww/ū ودع ‘Aduww or ‘adū (at the end of the sentence) xvii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AD After decade AMTEC Advanced Membrane Technology APA Environmental Protection Agency BC Before Century BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CLIS Council of Leading Islamic Scholars COD Chemical Oxygen Demand DAF Dissolved Air Flotation DNA Deoxyribonucleic Acid DO Dissolved Oxygen DOE Department of Environment Domestic Malaysian Halal Certification Procedure Manual EPA United States Environmental Protection Agency EPU Economic Planning Unit GAC Granular Activated Carbon GDWQ The Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality GEMS Global Environment Monitoring System HDC Halal Industry Development Corporation IIUM International Islam Universiti Malaysia INHART International Institute for Halal Research and Training INWQS Interim National Water Quality Standards for Malaysia JAKIM Department of Islamic Development Malaysia MATRADE Malaysia External Trade Development Corporation MDTCC Ministry of Domestic Trade, Co-operatives and Consumerism MHMS Malaysian Halal Management System MITI Ministry of Trade and Industry MOSTI Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation MPC Malaysia Productivity Corporation MUI The Indonesian Ulama’ Council n.d. NH3N No Date Ammoniacal Nitrogen NMT Nano Membrane Toilet OCWD Orange Country Water District OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer PBUH Peace be Upon Him PIC/S Pharmaceutical Inspection Cooperation Scheme RA's Radiaullah anhu SAW Salallah Alaihi Wa Sallam SIRIM Standard and Industrial Research Institute of Malaysia SMEs SME Corporation Malaysia SS Suspended Solids SWT Subhanallah Ta’ala TOC Total Organic Compound TSS Total Suspended Solid UAE United Arab Emirates UK United Kingdom xviii UM Universiti Malaya UN United Nations UNEP United Nations on the Environment UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization USA United State USGS United States Geological Survey USIM Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia UTHM Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia UTM Universiti Teknologi Malaysia UV Ultraviolet WHO World Health Organization WQI Water Quality Index