14 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter is organised into several sections. The first section includes a description about training, and its importance for both organisation and employees. The following section describes the concept of transfer of training, while the third section explains the concept of motivation to transfer and its importance. Moving on, the fourth section includes the theories that support the conceptual framework of this study, whereas the next section includes a discussion about the factors that influence motivation to transfer. The final section provides a discussion about the consequences of motivation to transfer and how they lead to work engagement. 2.2 Training Training is the area where organisation and individual development can match, as well as where human resource and organisations grow to get blended together (Sundarajan, 2007). In general, there is a consensus among researchers in defining the concept of training. For instance, Garavan and colleagues (1995) defined training as a planned and systematic effort to modify or develop employee knowledge, skills, and attitudes through learning experiences, to fulfil effective performance in any activity or a range of activities. Meanwhile, Dechawatanapaisal and Siengthai (2006) defined training as the act of increasing the knowledge and skills of an individual for performing a special task. Other than that, Goldstein (1993) described the training as a systematic acquisition of knowledge, skills, concepts, rules, and attitudes that lead to improved performance in the workplace. In addition, Chiaburu and Tekleab (2005) depicted 15 training as the planned intervention that is designed to promote the determinants of employees’ job performance, whereas Van Wart (1993) proposed training as application-driven, as well as aims to learn knowledge and skills that are useful immediately in special situations. Finally, training is defined as a planned effort by an organisation to facilitate individuals’ learning of job-related competencies; these competencies include knowledge, skills, rules, and behaviour that are critical for successful job performance (Noe, 2009). Hence, based on the given previous definitions, training is an event organized by the organisation to enhance employees’ knowledge, skills, and attitudes, through learning experience, to achieve high work performance. Nevertheless, the success of training depends on two key factors known as training volume and training quality. With regard to training volume, Dechawatanapaisal and Siengthai (2006) asserted that opportunity for training should be offered to all workers in an organisation. Meanwhile, as for training quality, Seyfried (1998) had linked it to the accomplishment of training goals and the pre-defined quality standards in learning processes. On the other hand, The Council of Europe (2005) argued that the quality of training is based on how the training addresses the issues that can later be used in practice. In other words, the training does not only address the issue of technical knowledge and skills, but also provides learners with some emotional skills. The quality of training is determined by a clear set of learning goals based on training needs, teaching methods, and the integration of practical experience, learning tools, trainers’ professionalism, as well as appropriate evaluation of training. 16 2.3 The importance of training The human resource development (HRD) literatures propose that investment in training and development (TandD) is totally associated with a range of employees and organisational benefits (Buckley and Caple, 2007). Similarly, the human resource management and management practitioners utilize official training as a vital and comprehensive component in employees and organisational development (Noe et al., 2006; Prais, 1995). Furthermore, training provides both the organisation as a whole and the employees with benefits that make the cost and time a worthwhile investment (Kumar, 2006). Besides, the need for training has arisen due to improvement in technology, as well as the need for getting better performance or as part of professional development (Kumar, 2006). Below are the specific benefits of training to employee, organisation, and the nation. 2.3.1 The importance of training to employee Training is conducted by organisations to promote employees’ productivity and competitiveness, as well as to facilitate individuals’ learning and work-related competencies and skills, and multi-skill employees (Noe et al., 2006). Moreover, better understanding of jobs can reduce accidents in workplace (Kumar 2006). In addition, training provides employees a sense of satisfaction, increases their commitment to their jobs and their organisations, motivates and inspires them by allowing them to be aware of the significance of the job they do, as well as in providing them all the information they need to perform those jobs (Garavan et al., 1995). Similarly, Suazo and colleagues (2009) also argued that training is indeed a 17 significant human resource (HR) task as it provides workers with information pertaining to their roles, knowledge, skills, and capacities required to perform their jobs effectively in their positions. On top of that, there are trusted evidences that training activity has a positive influence on the performances exhibited by employees and teams. Furthermore, training activities can also be useful with regard to other results at both the employee and group levels (e.g., attitudes, motivation, performance, and empowerment). For instance, Quin˜ones (1995) demonstrated that training courses displayed a positive impact on trainees' motivation and performance in their positions. Specifically, training for employees is the critical path to motivate workers and increase their productivity in the workplace (Kumar, 2006). Furthermore, Arthur and colleagues (2003) conducted a meta-analysis that compared no-training with pre-training nations, and discovered that training had an overall positive impact on job-related behaviours or performance. According to Kumar (2006), employees who received the needful training were better capable in performing their jobs. They were found to be more mindful of safety practices and appropriate procedures for basic functions. The training may also increase the level of confidence among individuals as they projected stronger understanding of the industry and the responsibilities of their jobs. On top of that, Barber (2004) reported that job training led to greater innovation and more implicit skills. Implicit skills are behaviours learned through informal training that are beneficial for effective performance. In addition, investment in training has been found to lead to a greater share of knowledge among employees (Blandy et al., 2000). In fact, a majority of workers 18 exhibited several weaknesses in their workplace skills. Hence, training programs had allowed the employees to strengthen these skills that had needed improvement. Training programs also bring all individuals to a higher level so they all have knowledge and skills alike. Furthermore, training enhances employees to learn and develop (Richey, 2000), besides fulfilling positive changes in their on-job behaviour (Garvin et al., 2008). Employees have to be capable to adapt quickly to frequent changes in their workplace (Shrivastava, 1983), which requires persistent improvement of knowledge, development of new skills, and adaptation of their habits. Organisation acknowledges that training programs improve employees’ performance and productivity, besides representing a tool for managing risks related to new goods, technologies, and markets. Furthermore, according to Mcclelland (2002), with the development of these technologies and the whole business environment, employees are requested to be qualified and more skilled, even if the employees are good then; employees could be out of the path one day if they stop learning. Moreover, employees could gain not only professional knowledge and skills from the training; but also, training course expands their choices on setting career targets. They can obtain more opportunities to know other positions, and increase the potentials of promotions in the meantime. Other than that, practical experience can be taught and guided in the training; where employees learn the methods of settling issues or complaints during training. 2.3.2 The importance of training to organisations One of the most important criteria of the strategy of an organisation is training. Training is indeed needed for the growth of an organisation. Even though the 19 machines and the materials are the key capital of any organisation, employee is the most valuable resource of the organisation. Therefore, the efficiency of the organisation depends on the competence of the employees. Before beginning a specific project or considering a possible acquisition, the first question that arises is if the required skills are present in the organisation. Training assists organisations in optimizing the employment of human resource, which further assists individuals to not only fulfil organisational objectives, but also their employees’ objectives. According to Guzzo and colleagues (1985), training programs are the most powerful activities between several organisational interventions. The objective of training is to make the employees to be able to master the knowledge, the skills, and the behaviour emphasized in the training program, as well as to use them on their job. Training serves to improve the employees' performance, which, in turn, provides a competitive edge to the organisation (Schraeder, 2009). In addition, researchers believe that training contributes to organisation performance (Dimovski et al., 2008), such as increasing productivity (Garavan et al., 1995), sales or revenue, productivity improvement, and overall profitability, besides lessening the overall cost of operations amongst organisations (Paradise 2007; Rivera and Paradise, 2006). Moreover, many researches conducted in the European nation have confirmed the effect of training on organisational performance. Aragon and colleagues (2003) examined the relationship between training and organisational performance by conducting a survey among 457 medium- and small-size businesses in the United Kingdom, Spain, Netherlands, Portugal, and Finland. Organisational performance has been operationalized as (1) effectiveness (i.e., human resource indicators, quality, and 20 employee involvement), and (2) profitability (i.e., a ratio of benefit before taxes/sales, sales volume, as well as benefits before interest and taxes). The study indicated that several types of training activities (including on-the-job training and training inside the organisation utilizing in-house knowledge providers) were positively related to most dimensions of effectiveness and profitability. In addition, Ubeda Garc (2005) carried out a study in Spain, which included 78 Spanish companies with 100 employees and more. This study associated the training policies outlined by organisations (i.e. goals of the training unit, nature of training, how training was evaluated, and functions assumed by the training unit) with 4 kinds of organisational- level benefits, known as employees' satisfaction, customer's satisfaction, owner/shareholder's satisfaction, and work force productivity, such as sales per employees. The study found that the training programs, which were oriented to human capital development, were directly related to individuals, owner/shareholder, and customer satisfaction, as well as the objective measure of business performance, such as sales per employees (Ubeda Garc, 2005). Additionally, training can help an organisation to enhance the service to their customers. This is because; training promotes the abilities of employees and strengthens their competitive advantage. Efficient training improves the personal characters and the professional capabilities. Therefore, not only employees, but also customers would benefit from training for employees, due to the received quality products and services (Kumar, 2006). Within the training period, employees would be introduced to ‘what is the task about’ and ‘how to do it’. It can assist them to understand their job better and also love it by understanding the job. After systemized 21 training, employees would understand the significant role their jobs play, and with the information, the knowledge, and the experiences gained from the training, they would be more confident with their tasks, and thus, better services can be provided. Moreover, training has been regarded as one of the imminent mechanisms for an organisation to be in competition with other organisations (Garvin et al., 2008). Training for employees is the key task to assist each individual in the organisation to be more effective. A project could hire experienced workers or train workers to be skilled. When the organisations train their employees, by providing and forming a harmonious atmosphere, accurate work specification, passion for work, and team spirit are built among employees and the management team within the process. Training of work tasks is one of the main aspects of employees training, including principles at work, as well as professional knowledge and skills. By offering employees these fundamentals, training for employees assists personal capacities match with business requirements. According to Kumar (2006), employees who have attended a training program have the feature over employees in other organisations who have not attended a training program. Besides, investment in training shows that an organisation values the employees. Training also generates a supportive workplace. Employees may get the chance to attend the training that they would not have otherwise known about or sought out themselves. Employees who feel appreciated and challenged through training opportunities may feel more satisfied and motivated to their job. Training courses increase communication among different levels of the organisation. Any lack in processes and jobs could be eliminated and those close to production processes would become more involved with the management. Other than 22 that, staff empowerment is a recent direction in management; such empowerment will only be successful when appropriate training is provided to employees (Kumar, 2006). 2.3.3 The importance of training to the nation Studies have been conducted by numerous economists to examine the relationship between training program activities and national economic performance. This body of literature depicts the conclusion that training efforts produce improvements in the quality of the labour force, which in turn, contribute to the national economic growth (Becker, 1962, 1964). For instance, Leeuwen and Praag (2002) conducted a study and calculated the cost associated with on the job training and the influence of such training on a number of nation level macroeconomic variables. They concluded that if employers received a tax credit of 115 pound sterling per employees trained, the total expense for the nation would be 11 million pound sterling. However, 114 million pound sterling would be generated in increased revenue as a result of the recently learned knowledge and skills. In addition to economic growth and other related financial results, training activities exhibited the possibility to produce benefits, such as the inclusion of the nation in powerful economic blocks, such as the European Union. This is due to some of the requirements imposed on nations to be part of those blocks, including human capital development. Accordingly, in recognition of the importance of training to the societal level, several nations encouraged national scale training and development projects as matters of national policy (Cho and McLean, 2004). The previous discussion have described in detail about the significant role of training to employees, organisations, and nation. Moreover, in order to ensure that all these 23 benefits can be achieved through training, one condition should be highlighted in the workplace following the training, which is known as transfer of training. As Garavaglia (1993), as well as Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001) argued, in order for organisations to benefit from the investments in training and to remain competitive, employees have to use, generalize, and maintain over time what has been learned in the training program on the work situation. The following section describes this concept in detail. 2.4 Transfer of training In general, there are consensuses among researchers in the field of training regarding the concept of transfer of training. For instance, transfer of training has been defined as the application of knowledge, skills, and attitudes learned from training on the job, and subsequent maintenance of them over a certain period of time (Xiao, 1996). Wexley and Latham (1981) defined transfer of training as the degree to which trainees use the skills, the knowledge, the attitudes, and the behaviours acquired in training program on their job. Meanwhile, Broad and Newstrom (1992) described transfer of training as the effective and the continuing usage, by learners to their jobs, of the knowledge and the skills acquired in the training program. In addition, Baldwin and Ford (1988) explained that transfer of training as gained behaviour that is generalized to the work context and maintained over a period of time. Based on the above definitions, it can be concluded that transfer of training is the consistent and the continuous application of knowledge, skills, and attitudes learned in training in the workplace. When the employee is able to apply consistently the training outcomes (knowledge, skills, and attitude) in the workplace, a positive transfer has successfully 24 occurred. Furthermore, Broad and Newstrom (1992) claimed that positive transfer of training is related to the effective and the continuation of application of learned knowledge, as well as skills, in training on the job by the learners. In fact, two situations can be associated to the workplace following training, known as far transfer and near transfer. Nikandrou and colleagues (2009) described near and far transfers as direct and indirect transfers. They explained that in direct transfer, the trained employees are able to transfer the learned skills and knowledge to the workplace, whereas indirect transfer means that the trained employees may transfer to the workplace the developed skills or attitude in training. According to Clark and Voogel (1985), near transfer is more likely to happen when learners emphasize the similarity between training content and the actual job. Near transfer means transfer between very similar, but not identical in contexts. In other words, if the content of the training is similar to the content of the actual job, or if the training activities are related to the actual job activities, the level of transfer could occur at the highest level. Moreover, in order to enhance the application of knowledge, skills, and attitude learned in training to the workplace (transfer of training), organisations should have adequate understanding about the factors that influence transfer of training. In general, some main factors have been identified to influence transfer of training in the workplace, known as work environment, training design, and employee characteristics. According to Tannenbaum and Yukl (1992), defining and accurately measuring factors influencing the transfer of learning is significant because it assists practitioners, especially the human resource development (HRD) practitioners, to 25 move beyond the question of whether training works to why training works. The details of each factor are discussed in the following section. 2.4.1 Factors that influence transfer of training Based on the need for developing tools to measure transfer of learning, Holton (1996) proposed a model that lists down the factors that can influence the transfer of training. Based on the model, effective transfer of training depends on many factors. These factors have been, in general, classified into work environment, training design, and employee characteristics. 2.4.1.1 Work environment Work environment has been considered as one of the most crucial factors for transfer of training to the workplace (Baldwin, and Ford, 1988). The significant role of work environment in facilitating employees to transfer the learned knowledge, skills, and attitudes to the workplace has been justified by previous studies (e.g., Alvarez et al., 2004; Baldwin, and Ford, 1988; Holton et al., 1997; Tannenbaum, and Yukl, 1992). In fact, researchers have recognized that work environment variables are significant for understanding the process of transfer of training (e.g. Baldwin, and Ford, 1988; Lance et al., 2002; Rouiller, and Goldstein, 1993; Tracey et al., 1995). In fact, some dimensions of the work environment that have received attention in connection with transfer of training are the performance feedback, and the support from organisation. Moreover, a study had revealed that when trainees perceive that the organisational climate is supportive, they are more likely to transfer the recently acquired knowledge and skills to the workplace (Baldwin, and Ford, 1988; Tracey et 26 al., 1995). Performance feedback includes an indication from the management about how well employees perform their jobs (Holton et al., 2000). Specifically, feedback; in relation to the recently acquired knowledge and skills and how these relate to job performance, had been found to increase the likelihood of its transfer to the workplace (Reber, and Wallin, 1984). Other work environment variables that have portrayed influence on transfer include organisational learning culture, supervisory support, and peer support (Baldwin, and Ford, 1988; Rouiller, and Goldstein, 1993; Tracey et al., 1995). Furthermore, a previous study found that both supervisory support and peer support were important for training transfer (Huczynski, and Lewis, 1980). In other words, when trainees perceive that the organisational climate is supportive, they are more likely to transfer their newly acquired knowledge and skills to the workplace (Tracey et al., 1995; Baldwin, and Ford, 1988). 2.4.1.2 Training design Training design refers to the degree to which the training has been designed and delivered in such a way that provides learners the ability to transfer the training outcomes back to the workplace (Holton et al., 2000). Holton and colleagues (2000) argued that part of transfer design is the degree to which training instructions match job requirements. Learners are more likely to transfer the training content to the workplace when they perceive that the training program has been designed and delivered in such a way that maximizes the employees’ ability to transfer the training outcomes to the workplace (Holton, 1996; 2005). This is because; when employees have previous knowledge and practice on how to use the recently acquired knowledge 27 and skills on the job setting and when training instructions are congruent with job requirements, an increased likelihood of transfer of training should exist. Other training design factors that affect transfer of training are the instructional techniques and the learning principles (e.g. Alvarez et al., 2004); self-management and relapse prevention strategies (e.g. Tziner et al., 1991; Wexley, and Nemeroff, 1975), and goal setting (e.g. Gist et al., 1990). Thus, organisations should design their training programs to include such factors to increase the likelihood of transfer of training in the workplace following the training. 2.4.1.3 Employee characteristics In addition to work environment, there are a number of employee characteristics that can affect the process of transfer training. The characteristics include cognitive ability, locus of control, conscientiousness, achievement motivation, motivation to learn, anxiety, self-efficacy, valence (e.g. Colquitt et al., 2000; Mathieu et al., 1992; Noe, 1986), job involvement, organisational commitment, organisational cynicism, and job satisfaction (e.g. Mathieu et al., 1993; Tannenbaum et al., 1991; Tesluk et al., 1995; Velada, and Caetano, 2007). Of these characteristics, performance self-efficacy was found to strongly relate to both learning (Gist et al., 1991; Mathieu et al., 1992; Quinones, 1995) and transfer of training (e.g. Ford et al., 1998). Meanwhile, Holton and colleagues (2000) defined performance self-efficacy as an individual’s general belief that one is able to change one’s performance when desired. Hence, when a trainee feels confident in his or her ability to perform, the more likely he or she will transfer such knowledge and/or skill to the job. 28 Another important attribute that can enhance transfer of training in the workplace is motivation to transfer (Kirwan, and Birchall, 2006; Liebermann, and Hoffmann, 2008). A particular training outcome will not be applied in the workplace following the training if employees do not have the motivation to transfer the training outcomes to the workplace. In other words, if trainees (referring to employees who attend the training) leave the training with low level of motivation to transfer, it is unlikely that they will show a high degree of transfer of training outcomes on the job (Bhatti, and Kaur, 2009). On the other hand, if trainees leave the training program with full intention to transfer the training outcomes at the end of the training program, they will be able to use the recently acquired knowledge and skills at their workplace (Abdullah, and Suring, 2011; Nikandrou et al., 2009; Tharanganie, 2013). One possible reason is that motivation is a force to make a personal effort and to change attitudes towards certain issues, as well as to take actions to shift outcomes (Newton, 1993; Noe, and Schmitt, 1986; Salas, and Cannon-Bowers, 2001). The following section describes in detail about this characteristic and its impact on transfer of training 2.5 Motivations to transfer Motivation to transfer is dynamic and necessary to the success of transfer of training outcomes in the workplace. It has been regarded as a major element in transfer of the training process. Hence, it might be difficult to apply the training outcomes on the job effectively without motivation. Scholars argue that motivation to transfer is the most critical pre-condition for the trainees to use the newly learned knowledge and skills on the job (Bhatti, and Kaur, 2009; Holton, 1996). This perception has been verified by 29 other researchers who found motivation to transfer as an important factor that predicts the success of transfer of training to the workplace (e.g., Axtell et al., 1997; Baldwin et al., 2009; Burke, and Hutchins, 2007; Chiaburu, and Lindsay, 2008; Liebermann, and Hoffmann, 2008; Mathieu, and Martineau, 1997). Furthermore, Axtell et al., (1997) reported that trainees' motivation to transfer was positively associated with short and long‐term transfers after trainees returned to their workplaces. It means that motivation to transfer can develop a value of consistency among employees to apply the training outcomes in the workplace. Motivation to transfer, in fact, was first identified by Noe (1986), who coined the term motivation to transfer and defined it as the “trainees’ desire to use the acquired knowledge and skills in the training program on the job” (p. 743). This is a well- established definition, which has been applied by other scholars in previous researches related to motivation to transfer (e.g., Abdullah, and Suring, 2011; Holton et al., 2000; Noe, and Schmitt, 1986). On top of that, other scholars have provided definition of motivation, which is quite similar to that proposed by Noe (1986). For instance, Bates and colleagues (2007) described motivation to transfer as the direction, the intensity, and the insistence of effort towards using in a workplace the trained knowledge and skills. Other than that, Baldwin and Ford (1988) defined it as an in-depth enthusiasm to apply the recently acquired knowledge and skills at work. Meanwhile, Seyler and colleagues (1998) referred motivation to transfer as the intention of the trained employees to employ the recently acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes mastered in the training session back to the workplace. 30 In general, motivation to transfer can be enhanced through various ways, including the factors that are related to employee characteristics, work environment, training design, and national culture. The following section provides a discussion pertaining to the specific factors that can influence employee motivation to transfer the training outcomes to the workplace following the training. Besides, adequate information about the factors can definitely help organisations in designing the work environment for maximizing the motivation to transfer training outcomes 2.5.1 The factors that influence motivation to transfer 2.5.1.1 Work environment The relationship between work environment and motivation to transfer can be explained through The Model of Training Effectiveness developed by Noe (1986). In this model, motivation to transfer was hypothesised to moderate the relationship between learning and behaviour change. Motivation to transfer is described as the trainee's desire to use the knowledge and skills mastered in the training program on the job. Behaviour change will likely occur for trainees who learn the material presented in training and desire to apply new knowledge or skills to work activities. Based on this model, trainees are likely motivated to transfer new skills to the work situation when they feel happy with the work environment, such as limited task constraints, supportive supervisors and co-workers, having opportunities to practice skills or use knowledge acquired in the training program, as well as the probability of receiving reinforcement and feedback from both supervisors and peers. 31 Work environment refers to an employee’s perception about the characteristics of the work environment that facilitate or prevent the trainees’ motivation to use their newly acquired knowledge and skills on their job (Rouiller, and Goldstein, 1993). Researchers argue that work environment can significantly affect employee’s ability and motivation to transfer training outcomes to workplace (Kasim, and Ali, 2011). For example, Tracey and colleagues (1995) found the significance of both transfer of learning climate and organisational culture as work environment factors that have an important influence on the post-training behaviour and the motivation to transfer. Below are the other specific work environment factors that have an influence on motivation to transfer. 2.5.1.1.1 Peer support Peer support has been described as the extent to which peers support and promote to use newly acquired knowledge, skills, and attitudes on the work (Bates et al., 1996; Bates et al., 2000, Bossche et al., 2010). Peer support is believed to influence the transfer of training (Noe, 1986). This argument has received support from a number of previous studies. For example, Bates and colleagues (2000) showed that peer support is an important predictor of transfer of training. Ford and Weissbein (1997) also have mentioned the notion that peer support is a crucial part of the training transfer process. Similarly, Donovan and colleagues (2001) found a positive influence of co-workers to enhance and support the employees to apply the acquired knowledge and skills on the work. Meanwhile, Broad and Newstrom (1992) mentioned that a simple obligation by peers in the form of a promise to one another in regard to skills application would greatly increase the probability of skills transfer to the workplace. According to Becker and Klimoski (1989), individuals are more possible to respond favourably to 32 peer that they are psychologically close to than those they are not. Then, feedback gathered from the support given by peer team could increase the probability of positive transfer of training outcomes. In addition, peer support also has been regarded as an important factor that can influence employees’ intention to transfer the training outcomes to the workplace. In fact, one research reported that among the social support factors, peer support has greater influence on motivation to transfer (Holton et al., 2007). Similarly, other researchers also argued that the support given by peers has been found to exert a significant influence on employees’ motivation and the ability to apply recently acquired knowledge and skills in the workplace (e.g., Bates et al., 2000; Chiaburu, 2010; Facteau et al., 1995; Hawley, and Barnard, 2005; Kirwan, and Birchall, 2006; Nijman et al., 2006; Seyler et al., 1998). Broad and Newstrom (1992) also reported that trainees supported by peers are more likely to be motivated to transfer trained knowledge and skills to the workplace. According to Langer and Imber (1979), the slightest hint of negativity within a work team could reduce the motivation to transfer the acquired skills to the workplace. Nevertheless, there are a number of possible reasons that could support the link between peer support and motivation to transfer. First, a supportive team work has influences on knowledge and skills acquired during the training (Kram, and Isabella, 1985; Michalak, 1981). Having adequate understanding about the training contents can motivate employees to apply the knowledge and skills learned in the training to their workplace. Second, support from peer can foster the self-efficacy of the employees (Evan, 1963). Third, peer would support opportunities to transfer the 33 trained skills through training session to the workplace, encourage each other, as well as show patience and appreciation to apply these skills (Holton et al., 2007). Fourth, employees responded more favourably to peers than to supervisors (Broad, and Newstrom, 1992). Fifth, employees may feel more relaxing performing acquired skills in a supportive peer work team than in one that is non-supportive (Ford et al., 1992). Other than that, Wexley and Latham (1991) pointed out that peer support, reinforcement, and interaction facilitate not only what is trained in the training program, but also what is transferred back to the workplace. In addition, the unity developed by a team of peer far outweighs anything that an individual can offer. Sixth, the support and the confidence received from the peer can enhance the employee’s confidence level and to be more motivated to transfer the recently trained skills (Broad, and Newstrom, 1992). Seven, peers that successfully complete a previous training and successfully transfer both knowledge and skills to the workplace are in a position to assist other employees to overcome difficulties related to skills application on the job (Broad, and Newstrom, 1992). 2.5.1.1.2 Supervisor support Supervisor support is defined as the extent to which supervisors behave in a way that optimizes to acquire knowledge, attitude, and skills in the training programme, as well as facilitate employees to use the efficiencies acquired in a training programme (Nijman et al., 2006). Other researchers defined the supervisor support as a status in which supervisor provides enhancement for the application of new skills on the work (Russ-Eft, 2002), and as the extent to which supervisor promotes and supports the use of recently acquired knowledge and skills on the work (Holton et al., 2000). 34 The support from the supervisor is an important element to the effectiveness of transfer of training in the workplace (Pham et al., 2013). According to Zumrah and colleagues (2012), employees can create a positive transfer of training if they receive the supervisory support to use the newly acquired skills, knowledge, and attitudes on the work. When supervisors provide an environment that nurtures the transfer of training process, they also provide safety nets for trainees that circumvent the potential of non-transfer (Shoemaker, 1998). On the other hand, failure to provide feedback in connection with the application and the significance of the training content will discourage employees from attempting transfer of training (Holton et al., 1997). This notion has received support from a number of previous researchers. For example, Noe (1986) highlighted the notion of negativity on the part of supervisory. He found that negative attitudes towards training, in general, had an importance on the application of the training. Walton (1989) also argued that employees’ intents and initial efforts to fulfil changes in their on-the-job behaviour commonly cannot prevail amid a general lack of support and reinforcement from their supervisors. Furthermore, Campbell and Cheek (1989) mentioned that failure to transfer recently trained skills and behaviours is often times caused by indifference and lack of involvement on the part of the supervisory. In other words, Campbell and Cheek (1989) argued that the transfer of recently trained skills and behaviours is complicated at best without the support from supervisors. Other than that, Walton (1989) noted that employees who need outside support commonly have their initial motivation decreased by the lack of supervisory support. 35 Moreover, support from a supervisor can be shown through various ways, such as providing practical guidance to employees on how to transfer the training outcomes to the workplace (Huczynski, and Lewis, 1980), placing expectations upon employees, which require them to apply the knowledge and skills learned in training (Richey, 1992; Rouiller, and Goldstein, 1993), removing additional work from employees, providing employees the necessary time to concentrate on transferring the recently trained knowledge and skills (Newstrom, 1992), enhancing employees’ level of confidence, providing feedbacks, assigning new tasks, as well as positively reinforcing and delegating more autonomy to employees in performing their jobs (Tharanganie, 2013). In addition, “supervisory support has also been described as a common work environment factor that could influence the motivation to transfer training outcomes” (Baldwin, and Ford, 1988, p. 93). Previous studies have suggested that when trainees perceive that their supervisors support the use of recently learned knowledge and skills, they are more motivated to transfer these efficiencies back to the work (e.g. Bates et al., 2000; Brinkerhoff, and Montesino, 1995; Colquitt et al., 2000; Foxon, 1993; Huczynski, and Lewis, 1980; Noe, 1986; Pham et al., 2013; Tracey, and Tews, 2005). Moreover, Xiao (1996) discovered that supervisor support is the most crucial predictor of motivation to transfer. In addition, Wexley and his colleagues (1991) found that supervisor influences motivation to transfer training outcomes through both verbal and non-verbal cues. These cues can influence the motivation to transfer before, during, and after a training program. A given example by Wexley and his colleagues (1991) is a supervisor rescheduling training program or not letting a worker 36 to attend the training program due to a minor crisis resulting in a signal of apathy. On the other hand, a positive cue can have an impact on motivation to transfer training outcomes in a useful way. In fact, there is a number of reasons to explain the link between supervisor support and motivation to transfer. First, the support from supervisor can create the opportunities for employees to completely utilize their newly acquired knowledge and skills, as well as to change to improve their performances (Baldwin, and Ford, 1988). Second, supporting supervisor will help in identifying cases where the knowledge and skills can be used, directing in the appropriate use of the learned skills, positively reinforcing new applications, as well as provision of feedback and improvement (Wexley, and Baldwin, 1986). Third, a supportive supervisor will decrease the workload so that individuals will have more time to plan for the use of the new knowledge and skills, besides providing opportunity for learners to apply the newly learned skills on the job (Burke, and Hutchins, 2007). 2.5.1.1.3 Opportunity to perform In general, opportunity to perform can be conceptualized as a form of support (Lim, and Johnson, 2002). Specifically, Ford and colleagues (1992) defined the opportunity to transfer as the extent to which employees are provided with or actively obtain work experiences relevant to the task for which he or she was trained. It also refers to the resources and tasks obtained by employees to apply the learned knowledge and skills on the work. Other researchers also have provided a similar definition. For instance, Holton and colleagues (2000) described the opportunity to perform as a subset of all the work experiences obtained by the employees after the training program. Based on 37 previous definitions, the opportunity to perform is not simply a function of the assignment of tasks by managers or supervisors to the employees. It also includes the active efforts of employees to obtain work experiences relevant to the tasks for which the employees were trained. The opportunity to apply the trained skills is a fundamental demand for employees to encourage their application of trained skills after the training session (Burke, and Hutchins, 2007; Lancaster et al., 2013). Having the opportunities to use the acquired knowledge and skills on the job can generate the training transfer to the work setting. In other words, the opportunity to perform will create successful transfer of training outcomes if the individual has the opportunity to perform the recently acquired skills in training place at the workplace (Garavaglia, 1993). One study conducted by Quinones and colleagues (1993) among the trainees of Air Force Aerospace Ground Equipment Technical Training Course found a strong relationship between the opportunity to perform trained tasks and the successful transfer of recently learned knowledge and skills. The other qualitative study among human resource development (HRD) professionals in Korea indicated that perceived opportunities to perform is one of the factors that influence transfer of training (Lim, and Johnson, 2002). On the other hand, a previous study consistently presented that the lack of such opportunities to perform can industriously prevent the use of learnt competencies on the job. In other words, limited opportunity to use knowledge and skills on the job is regarded as the strongest obstacle to successful training transfer (Clarke, 2002). In fact, a study by Ackerman and Humphreys (1990) revealed that employees who get several opportunities to perform learned knowledge and skills on the job were more likely to 38 transfer and maintain learned knowledge and skills than those who got fewer opportunities. The opportunity to perform also is very significant to enhance employee motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace following the training. Bates and colleagues (2000) mentioned that the opportunity to perform trained skills is regarded as a highest form of support for trainees to create the motivation to transfer training outcomes to the workplace. Conversely, if a trainee does not have the opportunity to use the recently trained skills, he or she will not be motivated to transfer the acquired knowledge and skills to the work setting (Nikandrou et al., 2009). Similarly, Gilpin- Jackson and Bushe (2007) concluded that having time to apply recently trained knowledge and skills is crucial for motivation to transfer training outcomes. This is also supported by Cromwell and Kolb (2004), as they found that lack of opportunity was indeed an important obstacle for motivation to transfer training outcomes. According to Seyler and colleagues (1998), perceived opportunities to perform newly acquired knowledge and skills promote learner’s motivation to transfer training outcomes, while Mathieu and colleagues (1992) mentioned that situational constraints at the workplace to apply the newly learned knowledge, skills, and attitudes can have a marginally negative effect on trainees’ motivation to transfer. Based on the above discussion, the present study predicted that opportunity to transfer promotes motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace. Hypothesis 1: Opportunity to transfer is positively related to motivation to transfer 39 2.5.1.1.4 Organisational learning culture In general, organisational culture is based on beliefs that are common within an organisation (Reichers, and Schneider, 1990). In specific, organisational culture is defined as a pattern of shared basic presumptions that the employees would acquire as it settles its problems of external adaptation and internal integral that have worked well enough to be regarded valid and, therefore, to be taught to new members as the right way to perceive, think, and feel in relation to those problems (Schein, 2004, p. 17). Organisational culture builds stability between the employees of an organisation as it is about shared meanings, attitudes, values, and behaviours. The strength of a culture is a function of the stability of the group and the length of time of its existence, as well as the intensity of the group’s experiences of learning and the means by which learning takes place (Schein, 1990). The organisational learning culture is a kind of organisational culture that integrates learning. Huber (1991) described organisational learning culture as a complex process that refers to the development of new learning and has the possibility to change behaviour. Other researcher defined organisational learning culture as the basic style of shared values, presumptions, and beliefs that are regarded as the right way of thinking about and acting on issues faced and opportunity given by the organisation (McShane, and Von Glinow, 2003). The common definition of organisational learning culture, which had been applied in this study, is the definition proposed by Senge (1990). Senge (1990) defined organisational learning culture as a continual experimentation of experience and its conversion into knowledge available to the whole organisation and relevant to their mission. It supports the acquisition of 40 information, the distribution and sharing of learning, besides reinforcing and supporting continuous learning, as well as its application to organisational improvement (Bates, and Khasawneh, 2005). Furthermore, Watkins and Marsick (1993) and Marquardt (1996) observed a culture that supported the acquisition of information, the sharing and distribution of learning, as well as the provision of rewards and recognition for learning, including its application as critical for successful learning organisations. The organisation learning culture literature confirms the role of organisational learning culture to the extent it indicates that unanimity has developed among organisation members about the value of learning and application of recent learning for creative purposes in the pursuit of organisational objectives and goals. On the other hand, an organisational culture that is more ‘passive’ and unenthusiastic about change and challenge will not encourage effective transfer of learned knowledge and skills (Zucker, 1987). Therefore, organisations, which have developed a powerful learning culture, are perfect at acquiring, creating, and applying the recently acquired knowledge and skills, also, at modifying behaviour to reflect recent knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Huber, 1991). If an organisational learning culture is to lead innovation and long-term performance improvement, consequently, the production and the sharing of knowledge must be accompanied by efforts at using or transferring those trained knowledge and skills in ways that assist the organisation to work more effectively. This essential requirement highlights a critical element that links both learning organisation cultures and transferring of newly learned knowledge and skills 41 to the workplace: that is, the need for a positive and a supportive psychological climate for training transfer. In addition, the organisational learning culture also can enhance employee motivation to transfer the training outcomes to the workplace or known as motivation to transfer. According to Egan, Yang, and Bartlett (2004), organisational learning culture is a valid construct in predicting employees’ motivation to transfer. In other words, an organisational culture that fosters employees’ development and growth, favours constant improvement and progress, and encourages employees’ initiative will have a positive influence on the motivation to transfer training. Moreover, Baumgartel and colleagues (1984) reported that an organisational climate characterized by high estimation for performance and innovation had a positive influence on the motivation for the application of learned knowledge and skills at the workplace. This argument has been supported by a previous study that discovered a significant and a positive link between organisational learning culture and motivation to transfer (Egan, Yang, and Bartlett, 2004). Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: Hypothesis 2: Organisational learning culture is positively related to motivation to transfer 2.5.1.2 Trainee (employee) characteristics Trainee (employee) characteristics refer to particular attributes of the trainees (employees) that they bring to the training place. The relationship between the trainee (employee) characteristics and motivation to transfer can be explained through The Model of Systemic Model of Learning Transfer (Kontoghiorghes, 2004). This model 42 assumes that the motivation to transfer learning back to the job not only would be influenced by the training design and training transfer climate, but also the trainee (employee) characteristics such as ability, personality and motivation. In other words, the conceptual model provides an underpinning theory to support the link between trainee (employee) characteristics and motivation to transfer. The primary trainees’ (employee) characteristics that influence motivation to transfer examined in this study are trainee’s ability, self-efficacy, motivation to learn and job satisfaction as detailed below: 2.5.1.2.1 Motivation to learn Motivation to learn is defined as a particular desire of a learner to acquire the content of the training (Noe and Schmitt, 1986). Other scholars have defined motivation to learn as the desire to engage in training and development activities, to learn the training program content, and to embrace the training experience (Carlson et al., 2000; Noe, 1986). It is recognised that learners cannot get knowledge and skills from training programmes without having the motivation to learn. As Noe (1986) has suggested that in the training effectiveness literature that learning will happen only when learner has both the capability and desire to learn. It is due to the fact that motivation to learn is related to learning since learning demands mindful and deliberate effort. When learners are not motivated, they commonly do not perform at the level their capability would allow (Stipek, 1988). In addition, motivation can generate strength of trainee’s enthusiasm for learning and level of insistence when program content is difficult. In 43 addition, motivation to learn is expected to impact the cognitive learning outcome of declarative knowledge. According to Wexley and Latham (1981), the significance of trainee's motivation to learn for facilitating the effectiveness of a training course is not in doubt. For instance, everyone experiences situations where skills and ideas most readily acquired are those related to personal needs. Besides, a shared experience where little progress was made because of disinterest in what was being taught often happens. There is also a recognition that motivation to learn is essential to support transfer of training in the workplace (Baldwin et al., 1991). Noe (1986) has suggested that transfer of training in the workplace will happen only when employee has both the capability and desire to learn. One possible reason is because motivation can be seen as a force in affecting enthusiasm about a training course. Motivation directs employee to learn and try to master the content of a course, and a force impacting the application of recently learned knowledge and skills even in the presence of criticism or lack of support (Noe and Schmitt, 1986; Mathieu et al., 1992; Tannenbaum et al., 1991). Other than that, a study by Noe (1986) has revealed that employees who are enthusiastic about the training course and desire to learn its content are likely to learn more knowledge, skills and attitudes and to demonstrate greater behavioural change and performance improvement than employees who are not motivated to learn. Considerable research also has confirmed that an employee’s motivation before training influences motivation to transfer (Chiaburu and Marinova, 2005; Facteau et al., 1995; Foxon, 1993; Tziner et al., 2007). For example, a study by Quinones (1995) revealed that employee’s motivation to learn and attend the training positively 44 influences their level of knowledge and skills acquisition, retention, and willingness to apply the training on the job. Furthermore, the Ayres’ model also suggests that the employees who are more motivated to learn are more likely to be motivated to use the knowledge and skills they have learned in training on the job. A study by Ford and colleagues (1992) reported that employee who was more motivated to learn in training session was more likely to exploit practice opportunity on new skills on the job. On the other hand, the lower levels of training motivation are more likely to impact the motivation of trainee to apply the newly acquired knowledge and skills from the training on their work (Colquitt et al., 2000). Moreover, empirical research has found that motivation to learn can impact the extent to which employees are willing to expend efforts to learn and benefit from training (e.g. Chuang et al., 2005; Colquitt et al., 2000). One possible reason to explain the link between motivation to learn and motivation to transfer is due to when employee has adequate understanding about the knowledge and skills that are learned in training, which can enhance their intention to apply those learned knowledge and skills in the workplace (Kraiger et al., 1993). Based on previous discussion, the following hypothesis is proposed: Hypothesis 3: Motivation to learn is positively related to motivation to transfer 2.5.1.2.2 Self-efficacy Self-efficacy is an individual’s faith that allows his or her performing specific tasks and behaviours (Salas and cannon, 2001). Similarly, other researchers also have defined self-efficacy as a judgment a person makes about his or her capacity to apply a task that has been given by manager or supervisor (Bandura, 1982). In other words, 45 self-efficacy represents individual’s confidence in his or her capacity to perform a job (Bandura, 1986). For instance, self-efficacy is very significant to every employee in an organisation. It is due to in hard situations for example, employees with low self-efficacy are more likely to lessen or stop their effort, while employees with high self-efficacy are more likely to spend extra effort in order to meet the challenges. In other aspects, employees may mean well that they are not able to perform a new learned tasks, unless they really believe in their capability. In addition, employees with strong self-efficacy were capable of reducing the influence of failure through frequent cases of success (Bandura, 1977). Thus, employees are capable of overcoming difficulties and hurdle, increasing self-motivation, and in the end reducing the number of failures through continual effort (Ford et al., 1992). Self-efficacy has been regarded as one of the main determinants of training outcomes. Previous studies found that self-efficacy promotes learning outcomes and performance, whether an individual has it already, or acquires it during training. This notion was supported by previous studies that found the significant impact of self- efficacy in shaping the behaviour of learners within the organisational setting (Decker, 1999; Mathieu and Martineau, 1997; Shoemaker, 1998). One possible reason is due to having individuals with higher level of self-efficacy set more challenging goals for themselves than individuals with lower self-efficacy do. Another study by Machin and Fogarty (1997) also has found that higher self-efficacy contributes to better performance by reinforcing individual’s judgment, in which better performance is possible through a greater commitment to self-set performance goals. 46 Furthermore, research has found important correlations between self-efficacy levels and post-training transfer (Mathieu et al., 1993). Specifically, previous studies have highlighted the significant role of self-efficacy on the application of learned knowledge and skills in the workplace (or known as transfer of training (Chiaburu and lindsay, 2008; Frayne and Latham, 1987; Ford et al., 1998; Gist et al., 1990; Robbins and Judge, 2009; Tannenbaum et al., 1991). In other words, when trainees have confidence in their capabilities, they are capable of transferring the competencies back to the workplace (Noe, 1986). On the other hand, employees who lack sufficient self- efficacy would expend less effort in transferring learning. Ford and colleagues (1992) have shown that trainees with high self-efficacy are more likely to use the tasks that they were trained for and attempt more difficult and complex tasks on the work. In addition, Bandura (1982) has found that there is a direct correlation between the degree of self-efficacy in trainees and the effort put forth by trainees in regards to the use of recently trained skills on the job, as the confident trainees are capable of overcoming barriers and facilitators to transfer training outcomes and eventually overcoming fear of application of new knowledge and skills. Besides that, trainees who are confident in their capabilities are less frightened and capable of using recently acquired knowledge and skills. This level of confidence could be achieved during training by providing a nurturing, supportive environment (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy also is viewed as having an impact on employees' motivation to transfer the knowledge and skills acquired in the training. According to Machin and Fogarty, (1997), there was a direct relationship among self-efficacy and the motivation to transfer training outcomes. In other words, when trainees have confidence in their capabilities, they are increasingly more motivated to apply recently trained knowledge 47 and skills back to the workplace (Noe, 1986). On the other hand, if trainees do not believe in their own capacities, they may not be motivated to use recently trained skills (Bandura, 1977). This notion has been empirically supported by previous studies conducted by Chuang and colleagues (2005), Colquitt and colleagues (2000), and Ford and colleagues (1998). Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: Hypothesis 4: Self-efficacy is positively related to motivation to transfer 2.5.1.2.3 Job satisfaction In general, although there are several variations from study to study on the definition of job satisfaction, there is a general unanimity that job satisfaction is an emotional reaction to a job that comes from a comparison of actual life results with expected outcomes (Cranny et al., 1992). These feelings are multifaceted and have components related to supervision, professional opportunity, pay, benefits, developmental opportunities, work, organisational culture, and relationships with colleagues (Spector, 1997). For instance, job satisfaction is described as an employee’s affective reactions and feeling about their jobs and different aspects of their jobs. It is the extent to which employees like or dislike their jobs (Spector, 1997). Loke (2001) has defined job satisfaction as the feeling that employees have about their job in general. Meanwhile, Curry and his colleagues (1986) have described job satisfaction as the degree to which employees like their jobs. Job satisfaction also is defined as an individual’s overall assessment of their job and job-related experiences, which is affected by an employee's ideals, values and beliefs (Chan and colleagues, 2004). For instance, job satisfaction can lead to employee behaviours that affect organisational functioning and performance such as high desire to learn and work hard 48 (Rowden, 2002). Employee who is satisfied with his/her job also will normally demonstrate a very high commitment to his/her organisation (Bai et al., 2006). In addition, employee who is highly satisfied with his/her job will demonstrate high self- esteem (Spector, 1997). In addition, job satisfaction is a significant motivator for employees’ performance and the effectiveness of transfer of training outcomes in the workplace (Mak and Sockel, 1999). Satisfied employees are highly motivated and committed to fulfilling a positive transfer of training in the workplace (Chiaburu and Lindsay, 2008; Machin and Fogarty, 1997). They also show high intention to engage in specific behaviours that would facilitate transfer of learning (Machin and Fogarty, 2003). Based on the above discussion, the present study predicts that job satisfaction will promote motivation to transfer in terms of the training outcomes in the workplace. Hypothesis 5: Job satisfaction is positively related to motivation to transfer 2.5.1.2.4 Trainees readiness Several scholars propose that for learning to take place, the employees have to be a willing and active participant in the training process. For instance, willing means that the employee should come to the training with full intention and preparation to learn, open mind and participative both mentally and physically (Wilson, 1999). Buckley and Caple (2004) have examined employee readiness from many perspectives, which are known as attitudinal, motivational, intellectual, emotional, and physical. Attitudinal perspective can be connected to the employee's attitude relating to past positive or negative expertise, which might create emotional obstacles to 49 learning. Meanwhile, motivational perspective involves employees being intrinsically and extrinsically ready to learn the material. On the other hand, intellectual perspective involves checking for prior knowledge and skills relating to the training content, and emotional perspective involves feelings such as fear, doubt, and concern that may interfere with the employee's capability to learn. Physical perspective involves the health, physical condition, and overall fitness of the employee and the influence it may have on the employee's capability to clearly focus on the training (Buckley and Caple, 2004; Wilson, 1999). These perspectives allow the learner to introduce strategies that increase trainee retention, including tailoring the instructional content to make it more relevant. It also builds trainee performance and academic self- efficacy and confidence, and increases the trainee's motivation to learn and transfer the training. 2.5.1.2.5 Cognitive ability Cognitive is an internal mental process that concentrates on learning through insight and understanding. While cognitive ability refers to employees' capacity to make meaning and draw conclusions from the stimuli presented by the external world (Rothwell, 2002). Gilley and colleagues (2003) have proposed further research to explore the link between employees' cognitive ability and the application of the learned knowledge, skills and attitude in the workplace. Such research is important due to a possibility exists, that although cognitive ability has been shown to reliably predict learning, it may not be as efficient at predicting transfer of training. Salas and Cannon-Bowers (2001) indicate that cognitive ability is a strong predictor of learning and training 50 performance and transfer of training. In other words, the higher an employee’s cognitive ability, the more successful he/she will be in learning and transfer of training. Another study by Clark and Voogel (1985) has revealed that transfer of training is achieved by trainees with higher general cognitive ability. According to Ree and colleagues (1995), cognitive ability has seen as a strong predictor of job performance and training transfer success as it reflects the capacity of employees to employ the major cognitive processes that are used in time to time job performance. 2.5.1.2.6 Situation identification Transfer of training requires employees to generalise the training outcomes on the actual job. This demands the identification or recognition of situation where the recently acquired knowledge and skills are relevant and useful, and can be implemented for performance improvement (Wilson, 1999). Therefore, the capacity of the employees to identify appropriate situation for the implementation of acquired knowledge and skills is a fundamental element of the effectiveness of transfer of training in the workplace. In other words, employees need to have the individual ability at identifying situations or conditions where they can effectively apply their newly learned knowledge and skills at the workplace. Besides, the capacity to identify situation improves with practice and frequency of application. This means that any organisation should encourage the development of this experience, through the provision of opportunities for such practice. This in turn, will increase the employee's motivation and the capacity to transfer training outcomes, and thus lead to positive transfer of training (Clark and Voogel, 1985). 51 2.5.1.2.7 Learning acquisition Acquisition of knowledge and skills during training programme is influenced by different factors such as training design, employee ability and employee’s motivation to learn (Abelson, 1981; Lord and Foti, 1986). For instance, employees who learn and keep the knowledge and skills offered by the training session are more better prepared and capable of transferring the learned knowledge and skills to the workplace, than trainees whose knowledge acquisition during training programme is low (Abelson, 1981). Therefore, employees must first learn the related knowledge and skills before they can generalised and maintained it in the work place (Lord and Foti, 1986). It is because employees who have adequate understanding about the training contents are able to generate idea on how to apply the training contents. Such ability can enhance employees’ motivation to transfer the acquired knowledge and skills in the workplace. 2.5.1.3 Training design The design of training programme could be undertaken only when a clear training goal has been produced in the training objectives, making clear what goals have to be achieved by the end of training programme .i.e. what the trainees are expected to be able to do at the worksite after the training programme. According to Tennant (1999), the expansion and demands of the global economic environment have created a demand for an adaptable workforce, highly skilled, and flexible workforce. The concept of a flexible and adaptable workforce proposes that it can quickly assimilate knowledge and use those skills and knowledge to new situations and environments. The achievement of this level of experiences in the workforce demands it to be highly educated and functionally trained. Therefore, there is an expectation that both the 52 formal educational curriculum and the workplace training curriculum such as the learning material and environment should be designed to meet those training goals. Training design refers to the principle of the learning and the training content which takes into consideration the training objectives, meaningful materials and sequencing of the training content (Chan et al., 2011). Training design also can be described as the degree to which training session has been designed and taught in such a way that provides learners the capacity and the motivation to transfer training back to the workplace, and to which the learning instructions match the work demands. In other words, the training design improves the understanding about the training programme and displays a practical way in which learning can be better applied on the work (Holton et al., 2000). According to Kasim and Sharriffah (2011), training design is one of the most significant influences on motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace. This notion has been supported by other researchers. For example, Holton (1996) has argued that employees are more motivated to transfer the training content to the workplace context when they perceive that the training programme has been well designed and delivered properly (e.g., the training instructions are congruent with job requirements). Moreover, the relationship between the training design and motivation to transfer also can be explained through The Model of Systemic Model of Learning Transfer (Kontoghiorghes, 2004). This model assumes that the motivation to transfer learning back to the job not only would be influenced by trainee (employee) characteristics and training transfer climate, but also the training design. In other 53 words, the conceptual model provides an underpinning theory to support the link between training design and motivation to transfer. Based on the training literature, there are various training design elements that influence the motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace. However, a comprehensive literature review by Burke and Hutchins (2007) has identified the key element of the training design that has influence on motivation to transfer, which is content relevance as detailed below: 2.5.1.3.1 Content Relevance Bates (2003) has argued that the training materials (i.e. the training content) should valid and be closely relevant to the employee task. This notion has received support from previous researchers such as Goldstein (1986) and Gagne (1962) who argue that the relevance of the training program has been seen as a particularly important area of training design. Content relevance refers to the extent to which training programme is judged by trainees as a careful reflection of the goals and objectives of the training course (Holton et al., 2000). Yamnill and McLean (2001) highlighted the adequacy of the training programme’s design as a factor that could improve transfer of learning. When training environment, conditions, and practicing exercises are similar to those which employees face on a daily basis at workplace, the acquisition and transfer of learning is more likely to improve. Similarly, Axtell and colleagues (1997) have found that the content validity of the training information was highly correlated to transfer immediately after and in the first month after training. In addition, content relevance also emerged as the primary factor in predicting trainees’ perceptions of successful transfer of training in a 54 cross-sectional transfer study by Yamnill and McLean (2005). Moreover, perceived content relevance is important in transferring recently acquired knowledge and skills because trainees’ satisfaction with the training programme, which could mean that they may or may not feel enthusiastic about the training programme. On the other hand, if the training programme is not relevant, then employees are unlikely to apply the acquired knowledge and skills when they are back to the workplace, regardless of employees and workplace characteristics which are present. One possible reason is due to having an employee who considers the training content is not relevant to the actual work performance to show less effort and time in learning the content, and using the recently acquired knowledge and skills compared to a trainees who perceive value in the new knowledge and skills. For instance, Baumgartel and colleagues (1984) have found that employees who valued the learning are more likely to use the newly acquired knowledge and skills on the job. In addition, the gap between training content and actual work environment could isolate employees in the post-training life. It also could alienate those employees who were unable to reconcile the variations between what their job requires and what trainer provides. Other than that, content relevance also can enhance employee intention to transfer the training outcomes at the end of training programme. Holton (1996) has identified one of the key factors that influences employee motivation to transfer the newly knowledge and skills in the workplace as the divergence between the training content and the work context. It is due to variations between the training content and work environment context which imply that the recently trained employee will face an uncommon environment. Thus, the newly learned knowledge and skills will be 55 perceived as inadequate or unsuitable (Elangovan and Karakowsky 1999). Therefore, organisations should design training programmes that provide employees with the most relevant knowledge. Based on the above discussion, this study hypothesise that content relevance has an influence on motivation to transfer training outcomes. Hypothesis 6: Content relevance is positively related to motivation to transfer 2.5.1.3.2 Training goals Including particular behavioural goals is a basic strategy utilised by knowledge providers to illicit a desired behaviour in the organisation (Gagne, 1962), including the transfer of training. Kraiger and colleagues (1993) have found that transfer of training outcomes was higher for those trainees who were provided training goals as advanced organisers (i.e., background information) to the training programme. Werner and colleagues (1994) have suggested that the setting of training goals as taking part in a training session on assertiveness skills led to a better retention of training outcomes, as well as to partially better transfer of training outcome. One possible reason is due to communicated goals which can inform employees of the desired performance, while the conditions under which the performance will be expected to occur on the work, and the criterion of acceptable performance (Mager, 1997). In addition, communicating the training goals also can enhance the employee’s motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace following the training. Using objectives (both assigned and participative goal setting) to increase motivation to transfer training outcomes has received much support in the extant literature (e.g., Richman-Hirsch, 2001; Taylor and colleagues 2005; Wexley and Baldwin, 1986). For 56 instance, the objective setting has been found to help trainees adjust their behaviour by directing attention and action, mobilising energy expenses or effort, extending effort over time (i.e., insistence), and motivating the trainees to develop relevant strategies for objective achievement (Brown, 2005). All these behaviours are necessary to increase the employee’s motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace following the training. 2.5.1.4 National culture McDermott and O’Dell, (2001) have defined culture as a system of faiths that are deeply inherent within the community and is reflected in the behaviours of its organisations and people. On the other hand, the national culture has been defined by previous researchers in many ways. For instance, Hofstede (1980) has defined national culture as the collective programming of the mind that differentiates one group from another. Moreover, Parsons and Shils (1951) have defined national culture as shared characteristic of a high-level social system. Besides, it has also been defined as the shared values of a particular group of people (Erez and Earley, 1993). Whereas Lachman (1983) and Triandis (1995) have described the national culture as to reflect the essential values and beliefs of individuals formed during childhood and promoted throughout life. According to Hofstede (1980), national culture is a significant issue in management theory. Furthermore, national culture also has been determined as a significant variable in many global researches. According to Schein (2004), national culture is the most crucial factor in controlling an organisation’s effectiveness, capability, success and survival. The national culture also is considered as a factor that has an influence 57 on the transfer of training process (Bhagat et al., 2002; Chow et al., 2000; Li and Scullion, 2006). This notion has received support from previous researchers such as Kedia and Bhagat (1988), who have suggested that differences in culture at both the national and organisational levels are regarded two key factors in the transfer of training. The cultural dimensions of Hofstede (1980) are the most frequently used in the previous research of cultural differences in management studies (Bhagat et al., 2002). These include the dimension of power distance. According to Hofstede (1980), Libya is almost similar to other Arab nations; their Islamic belief plays a key role in the individuals’ lives (Hofstede, 1991). In contrast, large power distance is the predominant characteristic for this area. This means that it is expected and accepted that managers and supervisors separate themselves from the group and issue complete and specific directives. As national culture is considered a factor that has an influence on the transfer of training process (Bhagat et al., 2002; Chow et al., 2000; Li and Scullion, 2006), there is a possibility that power distance (one of the culture dimension) could have the influence on employee motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace as detailed below. 2.5.1.4.1 Power Distance According to Hofstede (1991), power distance (PD) is a measurement of the personal power or impact between a manager and a subordinate as perceived by the subordinate. In other words, power distance deals with an employee’s values with regards to status, authority, and power in organisations, where such individuals obey managers’ instructions without question, believe that managers deserve respect and deference are superior and elite and accept managers' decision-making limitations 58 while trusting that managers provide more credible decisions (Javidan et al., 2006). Other researchers argue power distance as the extent to which inequality, often as in hierarchy or a “pecking order,” is seen as an existing reality. Particularly, it is the degree to which subordinates accept that their boss has more power than they have and that the opinion and the decision of their boss are correct due to the mere fact that he/ she is the manager. On the other hand, in low power distance cultures, individuals feel inequity should be minimised (Morris and Leung, 2000). According to Hofstede (1985), Arabs rate higher than the Western in the area of power distance. Arabs respect positions of power and people in authority more than in the Western country, showing that there is more formality between leaders and followers. Arab leaders are expected to have privileges that others may not. Thus, leaders are seen as knowledgeable and strong and are depended on in decision makings. The dimension of power distance concentrates on the degree of equality or inequality between people in a society. In high power distance cultures, people prefer hierarchical communications and the training transfer process, which takes place according to hierarchical arrangement within the organisation. Superiors in such cultures may have the power to decide when and how learning is diffused (Bhagat et al., 2002). Thus, there is a possibility that the culture of power distance can enhance employees’ motivation to transfer the training outcomes in the workplace following the training. It is due to the fact that employees in this cultural context respect the managers and willing to follow the managers’ instruction to meet the organisational performance. Exploring the relationship between national culture (i.e. power distance) on employees’ behaviour (i.e. intention to transfer the training outcomes in the 59 workplace following training) is an important research direction proposed by previous researchers (e.g. Davenport and Prusak, 2000); Simonin, 1999). According to Bhagat and colleagues (2002), where there is little evidence of how the dimension of power distance impacts the training transfer process. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: Hypothesis 7: Power distance is positively related to motivation to transfer. 2.5.2 The consequences of motivation to transfer on work engagement This study looked into the consequences of motivation to transfer upon employees. Specifically, this study examined the impact of motivation to transfer on employee work engagement in the workplace. The relationship between motivation to transfer and work engagement can be explained through the Systemic Model of Learning Transfer, developed by Kontoghiorghes (2004). Based on this model, the various factors that influence employees are the learned knowledge and skills in the workplace, such as organisational commitment, high performance team environment, job motivation and satisfaction, awareness of how one’s job contributes to the quality mission of the organisation, a risk-taking and innovation-driven culture, as well as a quality-driven culture. In addition to these factors, the study claimed that successful training transfer was significantly predicted by motivation to transfer. In other words, when employees have the intention to transfer the training outcomes in the end of the training, the application of the training outcomes in the workplace, following the training, will be successful. Based on this notion, this study proposed that when employees have motivation to transfer the training outcomes to the workplace, they 60 will engage with the behaviour that is beneficial to the organisation, such as work engagement. Work engagement is described as an affective-motivational and a job-related state of achievement among employees that is characterized by vigour, dedication, and absorption (Schaufeli, and Bakker, 2004). Meanwhile, other researchers, such as Rich and colleagues (2010), described work engagement as a motivational connotation that represents the active allocation of personal resources towards the missions connected to a work role. Furthermore, work engagement is completely different from motivation, as it refers to cognition (absorption) and affective (vigour) aspects, in addition to motivation (dedication). On the other hand, work engagement totally differs from work-related flow as it refers to a longer performance episode; flow usually refers to a peak experience that might last only for 1 hour or even less than that. Finally, work engagement is totally different from job satisfaction because it combines high work pleasure (dedication) and high activation (vigour, absorption); job satisfaction is usually a more passive form of employees’ well-being. Moreover, researchers and academicians have found that work engagement has positive consequences for both individuals and organisations (Saks, 2006). At the employee level, research has reported that engaged employees perform better than non-engaged employees (Bakker, 2009; Bakker, 2011). Meanwhile, at the organisational level, engaged employees perform better, work harder, give better service, and contribute more to the bottom line (McLeod, and Clarke, 2009). In addition, a study that involved 2,194 workers from two organisations in the United 61 Kingdom revealed that work engagement had an influence on the well-being and the performance of employees (Soane et al., 2010). In fact, four reasons have been identified that cause engaged employees to perform better than those non-engaged. First, engaged employees experience positive emotions, such as happiness, joy, and enthusiasm. Second, engaged employees have better health. Third, engaged employees are capable in creating their own job and personal resources, and fourth, engaged employees often transfer their engagement to other employees (Bakker et al., 2006; Macey et al., 2004; Schneider, 2008; Schaufeli, and Bakker, 2004; Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). Besides, providing training to employees can enhance their engagement towards the job. This is because; when employees undergo training and learning development programs, their confidence is built in the area of training that motivates them to be more engaged in their job. In addition, employees will feel more engaged to the workplace following the training because through training, an organisation can offer employees a chance to grow, which can be regarded as rewarding employees (Alderfer, 1972). Furthermore, motivation to transfer (one of the outcomes of training) can also enhance employee work engagement. The motivated employee volunteers to use the training outcomes more than what the employee is expected and achieve more successful accomplishments than non-motivated employees. When the training outcomes are successfully transferred to the work context, there will be improvement on flexibility and productivity, as well as decreased costs, absenteeism, and the number of work- related accidents (Blandy et al., 2000; Heathfield, 2009; Lane et al., 2001; Lyles, and 62 Salk, 2007). Moreover, positive transfer of training can lead to improvement in the employees’ knowledge, skills, practices, dispositions (Chiaburu et al., 2010), service accuracy, service performance, and employees engagement (Paradise, 2008). Based on these facts, the following hypothesis had been proposed: Hypothesis 8: Motivation to transfer is positively related to work engagement. 2.5.3 Motivation to transfer as a mediator Based on the discussion above, this study proposed that all the factors had positive relationships with motivation to transfer. Motivation to transfer, had been then, predicted to have a positive relationship with work engagement. These perspectives are necessary and sufficient to establish the mediation effect (Kenny et al., 1998). Accordingly, this study proposed that motivation to transfer could be a mediator between the factors and work engagement. Thus, the following hypotheses were proposed: Hypothesis 9: Motivation to transfer is a mediator between motivation to learn and work engagement. Hypothesis 10: Motivation to transfer is a mediator between self-efficacy and work engagement. Hypothesis 11: Motivation to transfer is a mediator between job satisfaction and work engagement. Hypothesis 12: Motivation to transfer is a mediator between content relevance and work engagement. 63 Hypothesis 13: Motivation to transfer is a mediator between opportunity to perform and work engagement. Hypothesis 14: Motivation to transfer is a mediator between organisational learning culture and work engagement. Hypothesis 15: Motivation to transfer is a mediator between power distance and work engagement 64 2.6 The conceptual framework Based on the previous proposed hypotheses, below is the conceptual framework of this study. H1 H2 H3 H4 H8 H5 H6 H7 Figure 1: The framework of this study MOTIVATION TO LEARN SELF-EFFICACY JOB SATISFACTION CONTENT RELEVANCE OPPORTUNITY TO PERFORM ORGANIZATIONA L LEARNING CULTURE POWER DISTANCE MOTIVATION TO TRANSFER WORK ENGAGEMENT 65 The main components in the model of this study consist of 1) motivation to learn, 2) self-efficacy, 3) job satisfaction, 4) content relevance, 5) opportunity to perform, 6) organizational learning culture, 7) power distance, 8) motivation to transfer and 9) work engagement Individual. Variables (1-7) are hypothesized to have direct positive influence on motivation to transfer. Motivation to transfer, in turn, positively influences work engagement. In additional, motivation to transfer is hypothesized to mediate the relationships between the independent variables and (DV) work engagement The model of this study has been conceptualized into three stage-processes to test the proposed hypothesis. the first stage to test hypothesises H1-H7, variables (motivation to learn, self-efficacy, job satisfaction, content relevance, opportunity to perform, organizational learning culture and power distance considered as independent variables and motivation to transfer is considered as dependent variable. the second stage to test hypothesis 8 motivation to transfer is considered as independent variable and work engagement is considered as dependent variable. the third and the last stage to test hypothesises H9-H15 variables (motivation to learn, self-efficacy, job satisfaction, content relevance, opportunity to perform, organizational learning culture and power distance considered as independent variables, motivation to transfer is considered as mediate variable and work engagement is considered as dependent variable. 2.7 Summary of chapter This chapter provides adequate discussion pertaining to training and its importance for an organisation and its employees. Then, the chapter describes the concept of transfer 66 of training and the factors that influence it. Following this, the chapter explains the concept of motivation to transfer and its importance, the theories that support the conceptual framework built in this study, the factors that influence motivation to transfer, as well as the consequences of motivation to transfer and how it leads to work engagement. Finally, this chapter presents the conceptual framework developed based on the proposed hypotheses. The next chapter, Chapter 3, provides a discussion concerning the methodological aspects of this study.